Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Mim

ma

“What?”: a form of question put in order to discuss the form and matter of definitions and propositions with regard to the problems that arise in science. The interrogative pronoun ma is used in logic to ask two kinds of things: (1) the essence or meaning of a thing denoted by a term, i.e. its definition; (2) the intention of the speaker, i.e. the meaning of a term as intended by one who uses that term. See also muta‘alliqat al-qiyas wa’l-burhan.

al-maddat al-ula

Prime matter; see hayula.

mani‘at al-jam‘

"Mutually exclusive", i.e. the relation that exists between two contraries (diddan, q.v.) like odd and even, or two contradictories (naqidan, q.v.) like B and not-B or existence and non-existence; but whereas the contradictories (naqidan) are mutually exclusive as well as totally exhaustive (mani ‘at al-khuluww, q.v.) the contraries (diddan) are only mutually exclusive. Two universal propositions have opposite quality, i.e. one affirmative and the other negative like "All S is P" and "No S is P" (see al-qadiyatan al-mutadaddatan) also mutually exclude each other.

mani‘at al-khuluww

"Totally exhaustive", i.e. the relation that exists between two contradictories (naqidan) like existence (wujud) and non-existence (‘adm) or B and not-B; or between two contradictory propositions (al-qadiyatan al-mutaqabilatan bi’l-tanaqud, q.v.) like "All S is P" and "Some S is not P", or like "No S is P" and "Some S is P"; this, however, does not hold true of two contraries (diddan, q.v.).

mahiyah

The "whatness" of a thing, i.e. its essence or quiddity as opposed to ’anniyah (q.v.), the "thatness" of a thing, i.e. its existence. The essence of a thing is the reason why it is or what it is; existence is the actuality of essence. There is one Being alone whose essence is His very existence and that is God, the Necessary Being (al-wajib al-wujud, q.v.). In the case of all other things, which are possible or contingent beings (al-mumkin al-wujud, q.v.), their essence does not necessarily imply their existence for it is possible to think of the essence of a (created) thing without knowing whether it exists or not. It is noteworthy that Mulla Sadra (97901050/1571-1642), the greatest philosopher in modern times in Iran, maintains, however, the principality or priority of existence or being of a thing (’isalat al-wujud, q.v.) to its essence, for, according to him, the latter is merely a mental manifestation of the former.

al-mubadi al-Tabi‘iyah

"The natural beginnings", a term used to denote the four causes: the material cause, the formal cause, the efficient cause and the final cause. See also al-‘ilal al-’arb‘ah.

al-mubadi al-‘aliyah

"The supreme beginnings", an expression used with reference to the souls and intelligences of the celestial spheres; see al-‘uqul al-’asharah.

mubasharah (pl. mubasharat)

The direct or primary action or movement as opposed to the transmitted or secondary action or movement generated by it. like the movement of the hand itself which causes the movement of a key in the keyhole; this latter movement is called muwalladah (q.v.)

mutarakamah

An abridged form of syllogism, technically known as enthymeme; see al-qiyas al-mujiz.

mutadhaddatan

Two contrary propositions, i.e. two universal propositions have opposite quality, one affirmative and the other negative; see al-qadiyatan mutadaddatan.

mutadhayifan

Two correlative terms like father and son, teacher and pupil, or king and subject; one term necessarily implies the other but the two cannot obtain in the same individual at the same time in the same respect. See also taqabul al-tadayuf.

muta‘alliqat al-qiyas wa’l-burhan

Logical adjuncts, i.e. the various interrogative pronouns used with regard to questions put in order to discuss the form and matter of definitions and arguments such as hal (q.v.) to ask whether or not a certain thing or state of affairs exists; ma (q.v.), i.e. "what a thing is"; lima (q.v.), i.e. "why a thing is"; etc. All this is indeed the application of the Aristotelian categories (al-maqulat al-‘ashr, q.v.) to the problems of science.

mutaqabilan

Two terms in relation of "opposition" to each other so that they cannot be applied to the same thing or person at the same time and in the same respect. These are of four kinds: (1) contraries (diddan, q.v.), (2) correlatives (mutadayifan, q.v.), (3) privative and non-privative (al-mutaqabilan bi’l-‘adm wa’milkah,q.v.) and (4) contradictories (al-mutaqabilan bi’l-’ijab wa’l-salb, q.v.). See also taqabul.

al-mutaqabilan bi’l-’ijab wa’l-salb

Two terms in relation of affirmation and negation like A and not-A or existence and non-existence; see naqidan and also taqabul fi’l-salb wa’l-’ijab.

al-mutaqabilan bi’l-‘adm wa’l-milkah

Two terms; one positive and the privative, like motion and rest, knowledge and ignorance, or vision and blindness -to be distinguished from two contrary terms (diddan, q.v.) like bitter and sweet or black and white. In the latter case it is necessary to presuppose the separate existence of two things, i.e. bitterness and sweetness or blackness and whiteness, but no such presupposition is necessary in the case of the former, for rest is merely the non-existence of motion, ignorance that of knowledge and blindness of vision. See also taqabul bain al-’adm wa’l-milkah.

mutawatirat

Transmitted data or premises, i.e. the propositions to which the continuous testimony of other people causes our assent.

mata

Lit. "When?", but technically the category of time as one of the ten Aristotelian categories (al-maqulat al-‘ashr, q.v.). It refers to the relation of a thing to time (zaman, q.v.), i.e. to past, present and future or to yesterday, today and tomorrow.

al-muthul al-Aflatuniyah

The Platonic Ideals or forms: the universals which according to Plato (Aflatun, q.v.) are eternally real as opposed to the transitory and relatively unreal objects of sense-perception. The Ideas are also ideals as patterns of existence and as objects of human yearning (Eros) for higher values. See also al-’a‘yan al-thabitah.

mujanasah

Relation of similarity between two or more objects or individuals belonging to the same genus (jins, q.v.), e.g. the relation between man horse subsumed under the genus "animal". See also ’ittihad fi’l-jins.

mujarrabat

The data or premises to which the sense-experience in association with deductive reasoning causes our assent.

al-Majisti

The title of the Arabic translation of Ptolemy’s (Batlamiyus, q.v.) notable work on astronomy: Meagle Syntaxis (the Grand Composition), now known as Almgest from al-Majisti. The first known Arabic translation was made by al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf ibn Matar in 214/829-30, which followed by a number of other translations. See also Batlamiyus (al-Qaludhi).

mahsusat

Percepts, i.e. objects cognised through the outer senses (al-hawas al-zahirah, q.v.). See also al-quwwat al-mudrikah.

Muhaalah

The proposition in which both the subject and the predicate (as opposed to ma‘dullah, q.v.) are in the affirmative like the statement, "All men are mortal" or "some students are lazy". see also al-qadiyat al-muhassalah.

Maurah

The determinate proposition which has a quantifier (al-lafz al-hasir, q.v., or sur, q.v.), i.e. the one in which the quantity of the subject is defintely indicated by the use of such expressions as "all", "some", "not some", etc.; opposed to muhmalah for which see al-qadiyat al-muhmalah.

Madlul

Literally "referent" and "meaning", "sense". It also means "proved", "inferred".

al-Muhaqqiq

"The Investigator", the honorific title conferred on the illustrious Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (597-672/1201-74) -the Persian philosopher, theologian, mathematician, astronomer, physician, etc. -for his having made many original contributions to the various domains of human knowledge.

muhkam bihi

Subalternate, i.e. the particular proposition in relation to the universal proposition having the same subject and predicate and of the same quality; also sometimes called mahkum. See also tahkim and al-qadiyatan al-mutaqabilatan.

muhkum lahu

Subalternant, i.e. the universal proposition in relation to the particular proposition having the same subject and predicate and of the same quality. See also tahkim and al-qadiyatan al-mutaqabilatan.

mahkum

Subalternate, i.e. the particular proposition in relation to the universal proposition having the same subject and predicate and of the same quality; also called muhkam bihi (q.v.) See also tahkim and al-qadiyatan al-mutaqabilatan.

mahkum bihi

That which is predicated of something, i.e. the predicate (mahmul, q.v.) of a logical judgment or proposition, e.g. the term "mortal" in the proposition: "Man is mortal".

mahkum ‘alaihi

That about which something is predicated, i.e. the subject (maudu‘, q.v.) of a logical judgment or proposition, e.g. the term "man" in the proposition: "Man is mortal".

mahmul

The logical predicate, i.e. the term (or terms) in a proposition which predicates something about the subject (maudu‘, q.v.), e.g. the term "mortal" in the proposition: "Man is mortal".

mukhalafah lili-hawadith

The Ash‘arite principle of tanzih that nothing which is applied to created beings should be ascribed to God in the same sense. More explicitly, terms used to for human beings have altogether different meanings when applied to God. God’s attributes do not differ from those of humankind in degree

only-as God is wiser and more powerful than human beings-but in kind, i.e. in the whole nature.

mukhayyalat

Imaginative data or premises, i.e. propositions which are stated not to obtain assent of any kind but to force upon the mind to imagine something to be the case. See also al-qiyas al-shi‘ri.

al-mudrikat al-batinah

The internal senses which include common sense (al-hiss al-mushtarik, q.v.), formative faculty (al-quwwat al-mutasawwirah, q.v.), memory (al-quwwat al-mutadhakhirah, q.v.), imagination (al-quwwat al-mutakhayyilah, q.v.), and estimative faculty (al-quwwat al-mutawahhimah, q.v.). See also al-quwwat al-mudrikah.

al-Madkhal

"Prelude" or "Introduction": a title sometimes given to Porphyry’s Isagoge, an introduction to Aristotle’s logical treatise on categories. See also al-Isaghuji.

Marqiyun

Marcion, a Christian Gnostic of 2nd century C.E., known in Muslim philosophy for his doctrine of the eternity of matter. In Christian tradition he is known as a reformer who spent all his life in the attempt to purify Christianity from all contact with Judaism; hence Marcionism.

Marikh

The planet Mars or its sphere (falak, q.v.); see al-kawakib al-sayyarah.

musawah

Relation of equality with reference to quantity (fi’l-kamm) of a thing, e.g. the relation between two seers of cotton and two seers of gold. See also ’ittihad fi’l-kamm.

mustathnah

Lit. "the excluded", but technically the antecedent (muqaddam, q.v.) which is affirmed or the consequent (tali, q.v.) which is denied in the minor premise of the hypothetical syllogism (al-qiyas al-sharti al-mttasil, q.v.). See also al-qiyas al-istihna’i.

musallamat

Accepted data or premises, i.e. the statements accepted by one’s adversary (khasm, q.v.) in a discussion. The difference between mashhurat (q.v.) and musallamat is that whereas the former are accepted by the lay man, the latter are accepted only by the expert and elite. Both kind of premises are, however, used for dialectical purposes. See also al-qiyas al-jadali.

musawwarah

The determinate proposition which has a quantifier (sur, q.v.) or (l-lafz al-hasir, q.v.), i.e. the one in which the quantity of the subject (maudu‘) is

definitely indicated by such expression as "all", "some", "not all", "not some", etc.; also called mahsurah (q.v.).

al-Mashsha’iyun

The Preipatetics (i.e. those who walk around), the name given to the followers of Aristotle (Aristatalis, q.v.) for he is reported to have lectured to his pupils while walking in the garden of Lyceum, near Athens; hence also the term Peripateticism (mashsha’iyat). Though Aristotle’s influence on Muslim philosophy was immense -all the major Muslim philosophers: al-Farabi (d. 339/950), Ibn Sina (d. 428/1037), Ibn Rushd (d. 595/1198), and others were primarily known as Peripatetics -yet Peripateticism in the history of Muslim religio-philosophical thought continued to stand in conflict with various theologies and with Platonism and more particularly with al-hikmat al-’ishraqiyah (q.v.). See Hujjat al-Islam.

mushabahah

Lit. "resemblance" or "similarity"; technically the relation between objects possessing the same quality, say, of colour, touch, taste, or smell. See also ‘ittihad fi’l-kaif.

mushaghabah

An eiristic and contentious argument; see sufustah.

mushakalah

The relation of similarity between objects having a common property (proprium), e.g. the relation between triangles of different kinds in respect of their common property that the sum of two of their sides in each case is greater than the third side. See also ’ittihad fi’l-khassah.

Mushtari

The planet Jupiter or its sphere (falak, q.v.); see al-kawakib al-sayyarah.

mashhurat

The well-known data or premises which have gained currency among the people in general, i.e. among the lay men and even the uneducated masses. These are generally used for dialectical purposes. See also musallamat and al-qiyas al-jadali.

musadarah

An initial proposition or principle which is postulated to be true whether one believes it to be so or not like the postulates of Euclidean geometry.

al-musadarah ‘ala’l-matlub al-awwal

The fallacy of petitio principii or assumptio principii, i.e. the fallacy of begging the question. It consists in asking one’s opponent to grant overtly the very proposition or assumption originally propounded for discussion; this may be done in one of the following five ways: (1) by simply asking the opponent to grant the point which requires to be proved; (2) by asking the opponent to grant some more general truth which involves it; (3) by asking the opponent to grant the particular truths which it involves; (4) by asking the opponent to grant the component parts of it in detail; or (5) by asking the

opponent to grant a necessary consequence of it. It may be noted that the fourth way is only a more prolix form of the first.

Matatafusiqi

Metaphysics from Greek met ta Physika (that which comes after physics): the title given by Aristotle’s editor Andronicus (c. 70 B.C.) to a certain collection of his writings, i.e. those which come after the writings on physics. The term has nowhere been used by Aristotle himself -he has in fact called his metaphysical system "First Philosophy" (al-Falsafat al-Ula, q.v.). It is also misplaced in so far as Aristotle’s First Philosophy or the "Science of Being as such" includes both his metaphysics and his physics: the two cannot be separated from each other. The whole work (on metaphysics) consists of fourteen books each named after a letter of Greek alphabet. Muslim philosophers know only thirteen of them and called the whole collection "The Book of Letters" (Kitab al-Huruf, q.v.). The first translation of a part of this work into Arabic was attempted by Hunain ibn Ishaq (d. 264/877). See also Mabad al-Tabi'ah

maznunat

Presumed data or premises, i.e. propositions which have no more evidence in their support than the opinion or presumption of the one who states these propositions. These are generally used for rhetorical purposes. See also al-qiyas al-khitabi.

mu‘amalah

"Commercial transaction", but as contrasted with mukashafah (q.v.), the term means the "science" dealing with the moral and spiritual purification and cultivation of the soul.

al-ma‘ani al-ula

First intentions (intentiones primae): the properties of and relations between concrete individual things.

al-ma‘ani al-thani

Second intentions (intentiones secundae): properties of and relations between first intentions (al-ma‘ani al-ula, q.v.) which practically are the Aristotelian categories (al-maqulat al-‘ashr, q.v.).

ma‘dul

The proposition which is inferred from a given proposition without changing the latter’s quality and without transposing its subject and predicate but merely by changing its quantity which is done by negativising the original predicate, e.g. the proposition "No triangles are non-three-sided" may be derived from the proposition "All triangles are three-sided". See also ‘adl.

ma‘dulah

The proposition in which either the subject (ma‘dulat al-maudu‘, q.v.), or the predicate (ma‘dulat al-mahmul, q.v.), or both the subject and the predicate (ma‘dulat al-tarafain, q.v.) are in the negative. See also al-qadiyat al-ma‘dulah and ‘adl.

ma‘dulat al-tarafain

The proposition in which both the subject and the predicate are in the negative form like the statement: "All non-S is non-P".

ma‘dulat al-mahmul

The proposition in which the predicate is in the negative form like the statement: "All S is non-P".

ma‘dul minhu

The orginal proposition form which another proposition is derived by changing the former’s quantity through negativising its predicate. See ma‘dul and also ‘adl.

ma‘dulat al-maudu‘

The proposition in which the subject is in the negative form like the statement: "All non-S is P".

marhalah

Stage. (AnAc)

martabah

Level. (AnAc)

murajjih

Preponderating reason. (AnAc)

maslak

Road (see Asfar 1: "First Safar, First Maslak, etc). (AnAc)

musawaqah

Inherence (to inhere, see Asfar, 1: ch 8, p. 75). (AnAc)

mudaf

Relational. (AnAc)

musabaqah

Complete accord (S. Afnan, Avicenna: His Life and Works, 93); correspondence. (AnAc)

mu‘iddat

Preparatory conditions. (AnAc)

al-ma‘qulat al-ula

The primary intelligibles or the first principles which being a priori and self-evident need no proof such as the axioms of mathematics and fundamental laws of thought, e.g. a part is always less than the whole or a thing cannot be both B and not-B at the same time. See also awwaliyat and al-muqaddamat al-uwal.

maqam

Station. (AnAc)

m‘akus

The converse, i.e. the proposition inferred from a given proposition by transposing its subject and predicate, but without changing its quality, e.g. the proposition "No circles are triangles" is the ma‘kus of the proposition "No triangles are circles" or "Some Arabs are Jews" is the ma‘kus of "Some Jews are Arabs"; more usually called mun‘akis (q.v.)

ma‘kus minhu

The proposition from which another proposition is derived by transposing its subject and predicate but without changing its quality; see ma‘kus and ‘aks.

al-mu‘allim al-awwal

"The first teacher", a title given by Muslim scholars to Aristotle particularly because of their indebtedness to him logic. See also Aristatalis .

al-mu‘allim al-thalith

"The third teacher”, an honorific title given to Mir Muhammad Baqir Damad (1037-1110/1628-99), the greatest of the safawid theologians and scholars of Islam, the teacher of the celebrated Mulla Sadra (979-1050/1571-1640) himself considered the greatest philosopher of modern times in Iran. See also al-mu‘allim al-awwal and al-mu‘allim al-thani.

al-mu‘allim al-thani

“The second teacher”, an honorific title given to the celebrated Muslim philosopher al-Farabi (c. 257-339/c.870-950) for his being the first great expositor of Aristotle’s logic.

mughalatah (pl. mughalatat)

A logical "fallacy", i.e. a piece of reasoning which appears to establish a conclusion without really doing so; the term applies equally to the legitimate deduction of a conclusion from false premises and to the illegitimate deduction of a conclusion from any premises. See below the various kinds of mughalatah [ mughalatat]

mughalatat al-’ibham

The fallacy of amphiboly, i.e. the fallacy arising from the grammatical structure of a proposition or statement rather than from the terms of which it is composed (as is the case with mughalatah ishtirak al-lafzi, q.v.). The classical example of this fallacy is the oracle given to Pyrrhus: "Pyrrhus the Romans shall, I say, subdue", which Pyrrhus, as the story goes, interpreted to mean that he could conquer the Romans whereas the oracle subsequently explained to that the real meaning was that the Romans could conquer him.

mughalatat al-as’ilat al-muta’addadah

The fallacy of many questions, i.e. a deceptive form of interrogation in which a single answer usually in the form of "Yes" or "No" is demanded to what is really not a single question but a combination of many questions which can be answered only variously, e.g. the question: "Have you left beating your mother yet?" the simple answer to which in "Yes" or "No", in either case, leads to an apparent admission of impiety; also called jam‘ al-masa’il fi mas’alat-in.

mughalatah ishtirak al-hadd al-asghar

The fallacy of ambiguous minor. It consists in using the minor term (al-hadd al-asghar, q.v.) in the minor premise (al-muqaddamat al-sughra, q.v.) in a sense different from the sense it is used as a subject in the conclusion as in the following syllogism:

Men are not made of paper.

Pages are men.

Therefore, pages are not made of paper.

mughalatah ishtirak al-hadd al-akbar

The fallacy of ambiguous major. It consists in using the major term (al-hadd al-akbar, q.v.) in the major premise (al-muqaddamat al-kubra, q.v.) in a sense different from the sense it is used as a predicate in the conclusion as in the following syllogism:

No courageous creature flies.

Eagle is a courageous creature.

Therefore, eagle does not fly.

mughalatah ishtirak al-hadd al-ausat

The fallacy of ambiguous middle. It consists in using the middle term (al-hadd al-ausat, q.v.) in the major premise (al-muqaddamat al-kubra, q.v.) in a sense different from the sense it is used in the minor premise (al-muqaddamat al-sughra, q.v.)as in the following syllogism:

Sound travels very fast.

His knowledge of law is sound.

Therefore, his knowledge of law travels very fast.

mughalatah ishtirak al-lafzi

The fallacy of equivocation. It consists in an ambiguous use of any of the three terms (major, minor, or middle) of a syllogism (qiyas, q.v.). It thus may assume any of the following three forms: (1) fallacy of ambiguous major (mughalatah ishtirak al-hadd al-akbar, q.v.); (2) fallacy of ambiguous minor (mughalatah ishtirak al-hadd al-asghar, q.v.); (3) fallacy of ambiguous middle (mughalatah ishtirak al-hadd al-ausat, q.v.).

mughalatat al-’atraf al-’arba‘ah

The fallacy of four terms. It consists in using four terms in a syllogism (qiyas, q.v.), while syllogism by definition has only three terms for it is "thinking together" or comparison of two terms (al-hadd al-akbar, q.v., and al-hadd al-asghar, q.v.) by means of the third term (al-hadd al-ausat, q.v.) -the result is either no syllogism or a combination of two syllogism (al-qiyas al-murakkab, q.v.). The significance of this fallacy is to avoid all ambiguity in the case of terms used in a syllogism. See also mughalatah ishtirak al-lafzi.

mughalatat al-takid

The fallacy of accent, i.e. the fallacy arising from the emphasis or stress laid upon the wrong part of a sentence, for example, the statement: "Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour" may be differently interpreted (rather misinterpreted) by laying an undue stress on one of the words: "thou", "false", "witness", "against", "thy" and "neighbour".

mughalatah tarkib al-mufaal

The fallacy of composition. It consists in taking words together which ought to be taken separately as may be illustrated from the following piece of (false) reasoning:

Is it possible for a man who is not writing to write?

Of course it is.

Then it is possible for a man to write without writing.

mughalatah tafsil al-murakkab

The fallacy of division. It consists in taking words separately which ought to be taken together as may be illustrated from the following example:

All the angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles.

Therefore, each angle of the triangle is equal to two right angles.

mughalatah al-dalil al-murafa‘ah ila’l-shakhs

The fallacy of argumentum ad hominem. It consists in diverting the argument from the point or thesis under discussion to an irrelevant or malicious observation about the personality of the opponent.

mughalatah raf‘ al-muqaddam

The fallacy of the denial of the antecedent. It consists in an abortive attempt to deny or exclude the antecedent in the minor premise of a hypothetical syllogism (al-qiyas al-sharti al-muttasil, q.v.) in order to establish the consequent (tali, q.v.) in the conclusion which in fact is logically unwarranted, e.g. from the major premise: "If he takes poison, he will die", and the minor: "He has not taken poison", we cannot conclude anything not even "He will not die", for death can be caused by a number of causes other than that of taking poison.

mughalatah su ’i‘tibar al-haml

The fallacy of secundum quid. It consists in the use of a general proposition or rule in a particular case without attention to its special circumstances which would invalidate the use made of it. It is as if one were to say that because it is always right to help a man in distress, it is right to rescue a criminal form the custody of police.

mughalatah ‘adm al-luzum bi’l-tab‘

The fallacy of non-sequitur, i.e. the one in which there is no logical connection whatsoever between the premises advanced and the conclusion drawn, for example, a speaker, in order to prove that a man is an adulterer, may argue that he is a showy dresser and has often been seen about at nights, which facts, however, do not establish the charge; sometimes the expression ‘adm luzum bi’l-tab‘ is used to denote the fallacy of the consequence which includes both the fallacy of the denial of antecedent (raf‘ al-muqaddam, q.v.) and the fallacy of the affirmation of the consequent (wad‘ al-tali, q.v.)

al-mughalatat al-lafziyah

The fallacy in dictione, i.e. the one arising from the misuse of language. This has many kinds, viz. fallacy of equivocation (mughalatah ishtirak al-lafzi, q.v.), fallacy of amphiboly (mughalatat al-’ibham, q.v.), fallacy of composition (mughalatah tarkib al-mufassal, q.v.), fallacy of division (mughalatah tafsil al-murakkab, q.v.), fallacy of accent (mughalatat al-takid, q.v.), etc.

mughalatat al-natijah ghair al-muta‘alliqah

The fallacy of ingoratio elenchi, i.e. the fallacy of irrelevance. It arises when by reasoning, which though valid in itself, one establishes a conclusion other than that required to refute the adversary’s thesis or assertion.

mughalatah wad‘ al-tali

The fallacy of affirmation of the consequent. It consists in an abortive attempt to affirm the consequent in the minor premise of a hypothetical syllogism (al-qiyas al-sharti al-muttassil, q.v.) in order to establish the antecedent (muqaddam, q.v.) in the conclusion, which in fact is logically unwarranted; e.g. form the major premise: "If he takes poison, he will die" and the minor: "He has died," we can not conclude anything, not even "He has taken poison", for death can be caused by a number of causes other than that of taking poison.

mughalatah wad‘ ma laisa bi‘illat-in ‘illat-an

The fallacy of non causa pro causa (assuming a cause what is not the cause). According to the Muslim Peripatetic philosophers, it consists in assigning a reason for some conclusion, which reason in fact is irrelevant to that conclusion. In other words, the fallacy lies in connecting a conclusion with a certain premise which premise, so far as that conclusion is concerned, could as well have been ignored.

al-Maghalih

The Arabic title given to Aristotle’s sixth book on logic, viz. Sophistici Elenchi; See Sufistiqa.

mufariqat

The separated beings, i.e. the purely spiritual beings separated from all that is bodily. The term more specifically is used to denote the souls and intelligences of the celestial spheres. See also al-‘uqul al-‘asharah.

al-muqabil fi kull-i shai’-in la shai’-an

Dictum de Omni et Nullo; the leading principle of syllogistic argument (qiyas, q.v.) that whatever is affirmed or denied of an entire class or kind may be affirmed or denied of any part.

muqati‘

The conclusion in an argument which makes further discussion on a problem impossible by bringing it to a logical absurdity such as circularity (daur, q.v.) in proof, infinite regress (tasalsul, q.v.), or bringing two contradictories together (’ijtima‘ al-naqidain, q.v.).

maqbulat

The accepted data or premises, i.e. propositions to which the testimony of the person in whom we have full confidence causes our assent; this confidence may be because of a heavenly injunction in his favour or because of his reputation for being an expert in a particular field. Such premises are used generally for presuasive purposes. See al-qiyas al-khitabi and al-qiyas al-’iqna‘i.

muqaddam

The antecedent, i.e. that clause of a conjunctive conditional or hypothetical proposition (al-qadiyat al-shartiyah al-muttasilah,q.v.) which precedes the consequent (tali, q.v.) as its condition or cause, e.g. the clause "If it rains," in the statement: "If it rains, the ground shall be wet".

al-muqaddamat al-uwal

The first premises, i.e. the propositions which are accepted by all as basic truths, like the statement: "The whole is greater than the part" or "Things equal to one and the same thing must be equal to each other". See awwaliyat and al-ma‘qulat al-ula.

muqaddamah

The premise, i.e. the given proposition which leads the way to an inferred proposition; particularly one of the two premises in a syllogism (qiyas, q.v.) which together lead to the inference of a conclusion (natijah, q.v.).

al-muqaddamat al-hamliyah

An attributive or categorical premise; see al-qadiyat al-hamliyah.

al-muqaddamat al-shartiyah

A conditional or hypothetical premise in a (mixed) hypothetical syllogism; see al-qadiyat al-shartiyah.

al-muqaddamat al-sughra

The minor premise, i.e. one of the two premises in a syllogism (qiyas, q.v.) which contains the minor term (al-hadd al-asghar, q.v.) and this is the one which occurs as subject (maudu‘, q.v.) in the conclusion (natijah, q.v.).

al-muqaddamat al-kubra

The major premise, i.e. one of the two premises in a syllogism (qiyas, q.v.) which contains the major term (al-hadd al-akbar, q.v.) and this is the one which occurs as a predicate (mahmul, q.v.) in the conclusion (natijah, q.v.).

al-maqulat al-‘ashr

The ten Aristotelian categories, viz. substance (jauhar, q.v.), quantity (kamm, q.v.), quality (kaif, q.v.), relation (’idafah, q.v.), time (mata, q.v.), place (aina, q.v.), situation or position (wad‘, q.v.), possession (lahu, q.v.), or state (jiddah, q.v.), passion (See ’inf‘al and yanf‘il) and action (see fi‘l, also called yaf‘al). This list of categories given by Aristotle in the Categories (al-Qatighuriyas, q.v.)and the Topics (Tubiqa, q.v.) is not exhaustive or final; yet it is not a haphazard list devoid of all structural arrangement. Thus in order that something may exist, substance must exist, as if it were the very starting point of all individual things. But nothing can exist merely as a substance; it must have accidental forms (a‘rad). For instance, a cat cannot exist unless it has some colour, while it cannot have colour unless it has quantity or some kind of magnitude. At once, then we have the first three categories: substance, quality and quantity, which are the intrinsic determinations of all objects. But the cat is equal or unequal in size to other substances; in other words, it stands in some relation to other objects. Moreover, the cat must exist at a certain period of time and in a certain place; must have a certain position or posture; and must possess (or be in) a state of comfort or discomfort. Again, all material substances as belonging to a cosmic system both act and are acted upon.

mukashafah

A mode of intuitive or mystical apprehension which leads to the disclosures of things divine. According to al-Ghazali, mukashafah is a light which appears in the heart after it has been purified of all that is dross and blamable. Through this light are revealed many matters of which one had until then only heard names or had merely vague and general ideas. As a result, the meanings of spiritual verities become clear and one begins to have a true apprehension of the nature of Divine Being, His attributes, His acts as well as understand the real meanings of such terms as angels and devil, prophecy, prophet, revelation, etc. Contrasted with mu‘amalah (q.v.).

milk

Lit. "possession", but technically one of the ten Aristotelian categories (al-maqulat al-‘ashr, q.v.), often called jidah but more correctly perhaps lahu (he has), i.e. to have, or dhu, i.e. ownership. It denotes the relationship of a body to the covering it has over the whole of its extension or over a part of it, e.g. the clothing, armour, or shoes that man wears and which he carries wherever he goes, unlike the house he lives in which even if possessed by him encloses him only so long as he remains in the house.

malakah

A permanent disposition or habit of mind which becomes a part of the structure of mind like the orator’s skill in speech as contrasted with halah which is merely transitory state or passing mood. See also ’al-kaifiyat al-nafsaniyah.

mumathalah

Lit. "resemblance" or "similitude"; technically the relation between objects or individuals belonging to the same species, e.g. the relation between Zaid, Bakr, ‘Umar, etc., subsumed under the species "man". See also ittihad fi’l-nau‘.

al-mumtani‘ al-wujud

The being the existence of which it is impossible to think, e.g. a square circle or a married bachelor and for that matter anything which may be said to combine within it two contradictories (naqidan, q.v.) at the same time. See also al-wajib al-wujud and al-mumkin al-wujud.

al-mumkin al-wujud

The possible being, i.e. that which receives its existence from another and the non-existence of which is thinkable or possible like this world of ours. See also al-mumtani‘ al-wujud and al-wajib al-wujud.

Manzil

Station. (AnAc)

munasabah

The relation of "proportionateness" between two or more pairs of things when the terms or parts of each pair have the same relation or ratio as the terms or parts of the other pair, e.g. the relation individually of two brothers to their father or the relation of ratio 2:4 to ratio 3:6. See also ’ittihad fi’l-’dafah.

Manala’us

Menelaos (fl. in 98 C.E.): Greek mathematician and astronomer, well known to Muslim philosophers through the Arabic translation of his work on Spherics (3 books) by al-Mahani (d. c. 261/874) and also by Hunain ibn Ishaq (d. 264/877). The original text in Greek has been lost, and the work is extant only in its Arabic translation or its Hebrew and Latin versions.

muntij

A valid mode of reasoning which leads to a conclusion logically warranted, e.g. the affirmation of an antecedent in a mixed hypothetical syllogism (see wad‘ al-muqaddam); opposed to ‘aqim (q.v.).

mintaqat al-buruj

Lit. “the belt or zone of towers,” but technically the belt of the heavens outside which the sun and moon and major planets do not pass; divided crosswise into twelve equal areas called signs of the Zodiac (suwar al-buruj) each named after a zodiacal constellation. The twelve signs of the Zodiac are as follows: (1) Hamal (Aries or Ram); (2) Thaur (Taurus or bull); (3) Jauza’ (Gemini or Twins); (4) Sartan (Cancer or crab); (5) Asad (Leo or Lion); (6) Sunbulah (lit. "an ear of corn"; Virgo or Virgin); (7) Mizan (Libra, Balance); (8) ‘Agrab (Scorpio or Scorpian; (9) Qaus (Sagittarius or Archer); (10) Jadi (Capricorn or Goat); (11) Dalw (Aquarius or Water-carrier) ; and (12)Hut (Pisces or Fishes).

It is noteworthy that the term buruj has been used three times in the Holy Qur’an: 15:16; 25:61; and 85:1.

mun‘akis

The converse, i.e. the proposition inferred from a given proposition by transposing its subject and the predicate but without changing its quality, for example the proposition: "No circles are triangles" is the mun‘akis of the proposition "No triangles are circles" or Some Arabs are Jews" is the mun‘akis of "Some Jews are Arabs". The negative particular proposition (al-salibat al-juz’iyah, q.v.), however, has no mun‘akis form of it.

muhmalah

Indesignate or indefinite proposition, i.e. a proposition without a quantifier (sur, q.v.) like the statement "Men are brave" or "Students are diligent". See al-qadiyat al-muhmalah.

muwazanah

Lit. "equivalence" or "equilibrium"; technically, the relation of equivalence or similitude between wholes having similar composition of parts, e.g. the relation between the skeletal systems of two mammalians or vertebrates. See also ’ittihad fi’l-wd‘.

al-Mawadi‘ al-Jadaliyah

The Arabic title given by al-Farabi to Aristotle’s fifth book on logic, Topica; see Tubiqa.

al-mujibat al-juz’iyah

The particular affirmative proposition; see al-qadiyat al-mujibah al-juz’iyah.

al-mujibat al-kulliyah

The universal affirmative proposition; see al-qadiyat al-mujibat al-kulliyah.

maudu‘

Lit. "subject"; technically the term in a proposition about which something is predicated, e.g. the term "woman" in the proposition: "Woman is mortal".

muwalladah (pl. muwalladat)

"Generated" act, i.e. the secondary action or movement generated by the primary action or movement like the movement of the key in the keyhole by the movement of the hand; opposed to mubasharah (q.v.).