Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Haa

al-hass al-‘amm

A term used by al-Khawarizmi to denote common sense. See also al-hiss al-mushtarik.

hashiyatain

Lit. "two margins or limits"; technically the term denotes the doctrine of the philosophers, particularly that of Mulla Sadra, according to which all existents have "two limits", one towards the Necessary Being (al-wajib al-wujud, q.v.) and the other towards the prime matter (hayula, q.v.). See also al-Shaikh al-Yunani (Plotinus) in whom we already meet a similar view about existents.

hal

An intermediate "mode of existence", between being and non-being. In tasawwuf the term denotes an instantaneous trans-temporal mystical state by which a Sufi is seized in the act of encounter with a "favour" or grace from God.

hujjat al-Islam

"The convincing proof of Islam”, the honorific title given to the greatest theologian of Islam, Imam al-Ghazali (450-505/1058-1111), one of the greatest and most original thinkers, not only in the history of Muslim philosophy but in the history of human thought. This title befits him most because of his defense of the teachings of Islam through a remarkable criticism of the Muslim Peripatetic philosophers in his celebrated work: Tahafut al-Falasifah (The Incoherence of the Philosophers). Links: Ghazali's Site.

hadd

A term, i.e. word or combination of words, which by itself can be used as a subject (maudu‘, q.v.) or a predicate (mahmul, q.v.) of a logical proposition (qadiyah, q.v.); also the definition of a term. See also the various kind of hadd.

al-hadd al-asghar

The minor term, i.e. the term which is used as a subject in the conclusion of a syllogism (qiyas, q.v.).

al-hadd al-akbar

The major term, i.e. the term which is used as predicate in the conclusion of a syllogism (qiyas, q.v.).

al-hadd al-ausat

The middle term; the term which is common to the two premises in a syllogism and functions as a uniting link between them; it is, however, absent from the conclusion.

al-hadd al-tamm

The complete definition of a thing consisting of its proximate genus and differentia, e.g. the definition of man as a rational animal; also called al-hadd al-kamil.

hads

The capacity of the mind to draw immediate inferences from the data presented to it or to see through a kind of mental illumination the necessary connection between premises and conclusion.

al-hadd ghair al-muwati

The syncategorematic word, i.e. one which by itself cannot be used as a term (hadd), i.e. as a subject (maudu‘, q.v.) or a predicate (mahmul, q.v.) of a logical proposition (qadiyah, q.v.), by itself without the support of other words, such, for example, as definite or indefinite article, preposition, etc.

al-hadd al-kamil

The perfect definition of a thing consisting of its proximate genus and differentia, e.g. the definition of man as a rational animal.

al-hadd al-muwati

The categorematic word which can be used as a term (hadd), i.e. as a subject (maudu‘, q.v.) or a predicate (mahmul, q.v.) of a logical proposition (qadiyah, q.v.), by itself without the support of other words; such is usually a noun, pronoun, an adjective, etc.

al-hadd al-naqis

The imperfect definition of a thing referring merely to its differentia or to the differentia and the remote genus, e.g. definition of man as one who is rational or a "body" which is rational.

al-hudud al-thalathah

"The three terms", i.e. the three terms of syllogism (qiyas, q.v.), viz. the major term (al-hadd al-akbar, q.v.), the minor term (al-hadd al-asghar, q.v.) and the middle term (al-hadd al-ausat, q.v.).

hadith

Temporal, originated. (AnAc)

harakat al-Ittisal

Continuous. See Fazlur Rahman, Sadra, 103, line 27. (AnAc)

al-harakat al-iradiyah

Voluntary movement as opposed to constrained or forced movement (al-harakat al-qasriyah, q.v.); al-harakat al-iradiyah is also distinguished from al-harakat al-tabi‘iyah (q.v.) for, whereas the former is multidirectional, the latter is unidirectional.

al-harakat al-dhatiyah

The movement of a body not through an intermediary but by itself -opposed to al-harakat al-‘ardiyah (q.v.).

al-harakat al-tabi‘iyah

Natural movement, for example, a stone falling on the ground; it is necessarily a linear or unidirectional movement as compared to al-harakat al-iradiyah (q.v.) which may be multilinear or multidirectional.

al-harakat al-‘ardiyah

Lit. "accidental movement"; technically movement of a body through an intermediary, e.g. the movement of a ring on the finger along the movement of the finger or the movement of a person sitting in a boat along the movement of the boat -opposed to al-harakat al-dhatiyah (q.v.).

harakat fi’l-ain

Movement of a body from one place to another; it is also called naqlah (q.v.).

harakat fi’l-kamm

Quantitative change in a body; it is of four kinds: when the quantitative change in a body is due to nourishment or lack of it is called namuw (growth) or dhubul (decay or dimunition); and when a change is independent of the factor of nourishment or lack of it, it is either takhalkhul (q.v.), i.e. expansion, e.g. of water into steam takathuf (q.v.), i.e. compression or condensation, e.g. of steam vapours into water.

harakat fi’l-kaif

Qualitative change in a body from one state or condition into another, e.g. water becoming hot after it was cold; also called istihalah (q.v.).

harakat fi’l-wad‘

Movement on account of the change in the position of a body, e.g. a man who is sitting suddenly lies down; sometimes identified with al-harakat al-mustadirah (q.v.), e.g. the movement of a millstone in a mill which is a movement within the surrounding surface or space of a body of the millstone and not from one place to another.

al-harakat al-qasriyah

Forced or constrained movement, for example, of a stone thrown upwards; opposed to al-harakat al-iradiyah (q.v.).

al-harakat al-mustadirah

Lit. "the circular movement"; technically the movement of body within the surrounding surface or space of that body as distinguished from harakat fi’l-ain (q.v.) which is a movement from place (makan) to another; this movement is peculiar to the celestial spheres in the Ptolemaic astronomy.

al-harakat al-mustaqimah

Linear or unidirectional movement peculiar to bodies in the world of elements; contrasted with al-harakat al-mustadirah (q.v.) peculiar to the heavenly bodies in the world of celestial spheres.

al-hiss al-mushtarik

The common sense (sensus communis) located in the first ventricle of the front brain; it combines all the forms of the sensible objects that are received through the five external senses (al-hawas al-khamsah, q.v.). It may be said

that it is a faculty in which all the sense-perceptions are so coalesced that they assume a single form. This is how when we see the yellow colour of honey, we can internally tell that it is sweet, good-smelling and fluid; true, we have our past experiences of the taste, smell and touch of honey without sensing them again has become possible only through the functioning of the faculty of common sense.

hissah

Case (see Asfar, 1: 43) (AnAc)

hukm

A proposition, i.e. a logical judgement expressed in a sentence. It is an assertion or statement of the relation of agreement or disagreement between two terms one of which is called the predicate (mahmul, q.v.) and the other the subject (maudu‘, q.v.) of that predicate synonymous with qadiyah (q.v.).

al-hukm al-salib

A logical judgement in which the predicate is mentally denied of the subject.

al-hukm al-mujib

A logical judgement in which the predicate is mentally affirmed of the subject.

al-hikmat al-ishraqiyah

"Illuminationist theosophy": a school of thought in Muslim religio-philosophical thought which identifies philosophy with wisdom and gnosis rather than with abstract speculation and rational systematisation. Accordingly, unlike the Peripatetic philosophers of whom it is mostly critical, it lays greater emphasis on intuition (attained through invocation, meditation and purification of the soul) than on discursive intellect to reach the light of wisdom which, it maintains, was first revealed to the prophets and only partly understood and even misinterpreted by the Greek philosophers. As enunciated in the Hikmat al-Ishraq (528/1186) by Shihab al-Din al-Suharwardi (549-587/1153-1191), the founder of the school, it integrates Platonic and Aristotelian philosophy with the Zoroastrian principles of light and darkness along with its peculiar angelogy and Hermetic ideas and places the whole system within the context of Sufism. the outstanding among those who kept up the tradition of Ishraqi school were Mir Damad (d. 1041/1631), Mulla Sadra (d. 1050/1640) and Haji Hadi Sabziwari (d. 1295/1878). See also al-hikmat al-dhauqiyah.

al-hikmat al-bahthiyah

Philosophy based on discursive intellect and its abstract speculations, a name given by the philosophers of Illuminationism to the philosophy of Aristotle and his representatives in Muslim philosophy (masha’iyun). See also al-hikmat al-dhauqiyah.

al-hikmat al-dhauqiyah

Philosophy based on Illuminative disclosures of inner experiences and mystical intuitions as opposed to al-hikmat al-bahthiyah (q.v.), the

philosophy based on discursive intellect and theoretical speculations. A distinction made by the philosophers of Illuminationism (, q.v.). While the former opens up new frontiers of experience and suggestion and inner illumination, the latter merely enters into subtle dialectical discussions through definitions, explanations and abstract speculations. See also al-hikmat al-ishraqiyah.

al-hikmat al-riyadiyah

The science of mathematics which consists of four disciplines: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and theory of music.

al-hikmat al-majhuulah

"The unknown wisdom", i.e. those acts of God the wisdom of which remain unknown to human beings, for example the infliction of pain upon the innocent and virtuous. The term is used equally with reference to such religious beliefs as are beyond our finite understanding.

al-hikmat al-muwwahamah

The Arabic title given by al-Farabi to Aristotle’s sixth book on logic, viz. Sophistici Elenchi. See also Sufistiqah.

hay'ah

State [see al-Farabi, Fusul al-Madani, Fasl 1, 103, Dunlop trans. 27. composition [see my translation of Asfar 1: 21, line 1] (AnAc)

haduth

Temporal origination, temporal emergence, becoming. (AnAc)

hulul

Fusion, permeation or indewelling; a term used in philosophy in different senses: (1) the substantial union of the body and soul; (2) indewelling of the divine spirit in man; (3) inherence of an accident in its substance; (4) the union of form (surah) with prime matter (hayula, q.v.); (5) the relation between a body and its place.

al-hulul al-jawari

The relation of something being contained in a container like water in a water-pot, a term used synonymous with (al-hulul al-tarayani, q.v.).

al-hulul al-sarayani

The fusion of a thing into another so that it penetrates into every part of the latter like the fragrance of a rose into the rose flower.

al-hulul al-tarayani

The relation of something being contained in a container like water in a water-pot; also sometimes called al-hulul al-jawari opposed to al-hulul al-sarayani (q.v.).

haml al-ishtiqaq

Incomplete or partial prediction of a subject in a subject-predicate proposition, e.g. when we say that man is a biped.

haml al-muwatah

Complete prediction of a subject in the subject-predicate proposition so that the two become congruent and convertible with each other, e.g. when we say that man is a rational animal; opposed to haml al-ishtiqaq (q.v.).

al-hawas al-batinah

The internal senses; these include common sense(al-hiss al-mushtarik, q.v.), formative faculty (al-quwwat al-mutasawwirah, q.v.), memory (al-quwwat al-mutadhakkirah, q.v.), imagination (al-quwwat al-mutakhayyilah, q.v.) and estimative faculty (al-quwwat al-mutawahhimah, q.v.); see also al-quwwat al-mudrikah.

al-hawas al-khamsah

The five external sense: touch (lams), taste (dhauq), smell (shamm), sight (basr) and hearing (sam‘), which this order according to the philosophers, from a series in a graded order in which the distinctive nature of the sensation receiving the form without the mother of its object is increasingly manifested.

al-hawas al-zahirah

The external senses; include touch (lams), taste (dhauq), smell (shamm), sight (basr) and hearing (sam‘); these are five senses (al-hawas al-khamsah) if touch is considered a single sense, but eight (al-hawas al-thamaniyah) if it is supposed to comprise the four pairs of contraries: hot (hararah) and cold (burudah); dry (yubusah) and moist (rutubah); hard (salabah) and soft (rakhamah); and smooth (mulasah) and rough (khushunah).

Hayy Ibn Yaqzan

"The living One, Son of the Vigilant", the title of the celebrated philosophical romance -one of the most remarkable works of the Middle Ages -by the Andulsian Muslim philosopher Ibn Tufail (504?-581/ 1110?-1185). No book on Muslim philosophy perhaps has been translated into so many languages of the world as this. link: an English language translation that was done in 1906(?).

Khaa

khas

Lit. "particular". The fifth predicable of the alfaz al-khamsah as set out by Porphyry (233-c. 304 C.E.) in his Isagoge(Isaghuji, q.v.) that was the introduction to Aristotle's work titled "categories." This entry is not the printed text..

kharq al-‘adah

"The splitting of nature"; that which is against the usual or customary way of nature, i.e. any extraordinary or miraculous phenomenon.

al-Khatabah

The Arabic title given to Aristotle's seventh book on logic, viz. Rhetorica; see also Rituriqa.

khasm

Lit. "enemy", but technically the adversary in a discussion, i.e. each one of the two controversialists who speaks either for or against an issue.

khala’

"Void". According to most philosophers, particularly the Peripatetics, void or vacuum as empty nothingness does not exist and that it is "only a name" or better "an empty thought". Void is impossible, it is argued, because all space can be increased, diminished or divided into parts and so must contain something which is capable of being increased, diminished, or divided.

khalf

The antithesis of a thesis or a proposition which falsifies another proposition; in general khalf means simply an objection.

khalq

Creation of the world of nature, i.e. an act of creation which is through the intermediaries of matter and time and which presupposes causal priority; to be distinguished from ibda‘ (q.v.).

khawalif

Lit. "surrogates", a term used by the logicians for demonstrative or personal pronouns.

al-khayal al-muttasil

The universal or Idea as embodied in and conjoined with the particulars of which it is the universal-a thesis of Aristotle and the Aristotelians.

al-khayal al-munfasil

The universal or Idea separated from the particulars and subsisting in the realm of (Platonic) Ideas-a view held by Plato and the Platonists.

Daal

dakhilatan taht al-tadadd

The two sub-contrary propositions; see al-qadiyatan al-dakhilatan taht al-tadadd.

da‘im

Perpetual. (AnAc)

darajah

Stage. (AnAc)

dalalah

The manner in which a vocable (lafz) signifies the meaning of a thing that it designates; it is of three kinds: dalalat al-mutabaqah (q.v.), dalalat al-tadammun (q.v.) and. dalalat al-iltizam (q.v.). {Also: connotation, signify the meaning (of something) [see S. Afnan, Avicenna: His Life and Works, 92-3]. (updated by: AnAc)}

dalalat al-iltizam

Signification by association or implication between the word and its designatum, when, for example, the word "roof" is used to designate the walls as well; the latter designatum is associated with or implied in the former.

dalalat al-tadammun

Signification of partial accord between the word and its designatum, when, for example, the word "house" is used to signify only a part of the house, i.e. its roof only or walls only, etc.

dalalat al-tatafful

A term used by Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi Maqtul (549-587/1153-1191) for dalalat al-iltizam (q.v.).

dalalat al-haitah

A term used by Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi Maqtul for dalalat al-tadammun (q.v.)

dalalat al-mutabaqah

Signification of complete accord between a word and its designatum, when, for example, the word "house" is used to signify the whole of the house taking all its parts, the walls, the roofs, the floors, etc. into consideration.

dalil

A word of common use in philosophical discourse but bearing different meanings among which the following should be distinguished: ( i ) designation or indication by which a sign "leads" to another sign or thing; (2) proof in a general sense to be distinguished from a proof in the strict sense, i.e. from the syllogistic proof [al-burhan al-mutlaq (q.v.) or al-burhan al-qati‘ (q.v.)] in deductive logic by which the particular is deduced from the

universal; (3) more specifically the proof by which the cause is inferred from the effect or universal from the particular; see also istidlal and al-burhan al-’inni.

al-dalil al-iqna‘i

The persuasive argument; see iqna and qiyas al-iqna‘i.

al-dalil al-murafa‘ah ila al-shakhs

The fallacy of argumentum ad hominem: a kind of the fallacy of ignoratio elenchi (mughalatat al-natijah ghair al-muta‘alliqah, q.v.) ; see also mughalatat al-dalil al-murafa‘ah ila al-shakhs.

dahr

The eternal duration in which eternity in past (azal, q.v.) is in a constant union with eternity in future (abad, q.v.). Dahr being the innermost essence or part of time (zaman, q.v.), encompasses it altogether. Dahr, compared with time and measured by it, is found to have a permanence corresponding exactly to the permanence of time with reference to what is contained in it; see also sarmad.

daur

A term used in logic to denote the circularity in argument or proof which occurs when a proposition is put forward followed by a number of propositions successively and at the end the last proposition is posited as the proof of the original proposition. It is, thus, a kind of petitio principii. In a simpler form it may be merely the rotation of two proposition, one used as a proof of the other. See also al-musadarah ‘ala’l-matlub al-awwal and muqati‘.

Dimiqratis

Democritus of Abdera (c. 460-370 B.C.): famous in Muslim philosophy for his theory of atoms; generally considered to be the founder of Greek atomism and also of the notion of empty space.

Dayujans al-Kalabi

Diogenes of Sinope (412-323 B.C.): Greek cynic philosopher; studied under Antisthenes (c. 444-368 B.C.); the founder of cynicism (kalabiyah, q.v.). Diogenes rejected all social conventions. According to a tradition current in Arabic as well as in Persian literature, he once went through streets holding up a lantern "looking for an honest man". According to another similar tradition, he was visited at Corinth by Alexander the Great who asked if he could oblige the philosopher in any way, "Yes", Diogenes, "stand from between me and the sun."

Dhal

dha’i‘at

Generally accepted or widespread data or premises, i.e. propositions to which the evidence of the majority of people as well as of those learned in the sciences causes our assent.

dhat

A common term in philosophical discourse but used in different senses of which the following should be noted: (1) Thing or individual (in this sense identical with shai or ‘ain, q.v.). (2) Being or self (identical with anniyah, q.v.). (3) The essence of a thing, its inner meaning or its essential qualities (in this sense identical with mahiyah, q.v.). (4) Substance or substratum of a thing in which the qualities inhere or of which the attributes can be predicated (in this sense more or less identical with jauhar, q.v.).

dhakirah

The faculty of memory or reminiscence; see al-quwwat al-mutadhakirah.

dhubul

Dimunition or decay of body due to lack of nourishment; one of the four kinds of harakah fi’l-kamm (q.v.).

dhu

The category of "ownership" or possession as one of the ten Aristotelian categories (al-maqulat al-‘ashr, q.v.); see also milk.

dhu al-jihatain

Dilemma, i.e. the complex syllogism which has for its major premise the two conditional conjunctive propositions (al-sharti al-muttasilah, q.v.) and for the minor premise the conditional disjunctive (al-sharti al-munfasil, q.v.) which together lead to a conclusion either in the categorical or in the conditional disjunctive; see also qiyas dhu al-jihatain.

dhauq

Taste sensation, a power placed in the gustatory nerves. spread out on the skin of the tongue. By this power or faculty tastes are perceived through the mixing of the saliva which is in the mouth with the thing tasted and through its stimulating the gustatory nerves. The two senses of touch and taste are found in all animals for these are of primary importance for the animal life. The rest of the three senses, i.e. smell, sight and hearing, being of secondary importance, are found in some animals only. See also tu‘um.

Dhiyasquridhus

Dioscorides: Greek physician of first century C.E.; his work on Materia Medica was translated into Arabic by Hunain ibn Ishaq (d. 264/877).

Dhayufantus

Diophantus: Greek mathematician of the second half of third century C.E., said to be a great Greek writer on algebra.

Raa

ribatah

Lit. "connection", technically the copula, i.e. the relation between subject and predicate in a proposition.

al-radd ‘ala al-imtina‘

Reductio ad impossibile, the refutation of a proposition by showing that its consequences are impossible or logically absurd. See also muqati‘.

ridf

Lit. "consequent"; a term sometimes used in logic to denote the conclusion in a syllogism, i.e. the inferred propositions or premises. See also qiyas.

al-rasm al-tamm

The complete description of a thing as distinguished from its complete definition (al- hadd al-tamm, q.v.); it generally refers to the proximate genus and the proprium of a thing, e.g. the description of man as a laughing animal.

al-rasm al-naqis

The imperfect description of a thing which refers to one of its properties (propria) or the property along with the remote genus (al-jins al-ba‘id), e.g. the description of man as one who laughs or a "body" that laughs. More often it refers merely to the accidents (a‘rad) of a thing, e.g. when we describe man as one who stands erect, walks on his feet, grasps things with his hands, etc.

raf‘ al-tali

The denial of the consequent in the minor premise of a hypothetical syllogism (al-qiyas al-sharti al-istithna’i, q.v.) leading to the denial of the antecedent in the conclusion; a valid mode of reasoning know as Modus Tollens, i.e. the negative mode of hypothetical syllogism; opposed to wad‘ al-tali (affirmation of the consequent in the minor premise) which is a form of logical fallacy. See also mughalatah wad‘ al-tali.

raf‘ al-muqaddam

The fallacy of the denial of antecedent; see also mughalatah raf‘ al-muqaddam.

Rawaqiyah

Stoicism, so named by the Muslim philosophers because the founder of the school of Stoicism, Zeno (Zainun, q.v. as distinguished from Zainun al-Akbar, q.v.) used to teach in a rawaq, i.e. in Stoa Poecile or a Painted Porch at Athens. According to the Stoics, virtue alone is good while there are no degrees of moral goodness: it is all or nothing. One ought to have a full control of one’s passions and desires by becoming completely indifferent to pain and pleasure; for, thus, alone could one attain to the life of virtue. The Stoics enlarge the area of moral responsibility from the confines of a City-

State to include all human beings. Everyone is a citizen of one and the same state, i.e. the State of Humanity. All men are of one blood, of one family and so each should treat everyone else as "scared beings". In their view of the universe they included a kind of pantheism. The Muslim philosophers welcomed their humanitarianism and cosmopolitanism, and also keenly studied their theory of knowledge and logic.

al-ruh al-jariyah

The travelling spirit or soul which is supposed to leave the body during sleep and give rise to dreams; opposed to (al-ruh al-muhkam, q.v.).

al-ruh al-hayawaniyah

The animal soul, common to the rational and the non-rational animals. It is supposed to be located in the heart from where the animal spirits spread into the arteries and capillaries and thus in all parts of the body; also called (al-ruh al-ghariziyah, q.v.). See also al-nafs al-hayawaniyah.

al-ruh al-tabi‘iyah

"The natural soul", common to animals and plants. In animals it is supposed to be located in the liver from where it spreads into all the veins of the body. See also al-nafs al-nabatiyah and al-nafs al-hayawaniyah.

al-ruh al-ghariziyah

The animal spirits emanating from the heart and spreading in all parts of the body. See also al-ruh al-hayawaniyah and al-nafs al-hayawaniyah.

al-ruh al-muhkam

The resident soul which unlike the travelling soul (al-ruh al-jariyah, q.v.) is supposed never to leave the body.

al-ruh al-nabatiyah

The vegetable soul; see al-ruh al-tabi‘iyah and al-nafs al-nabatiyah.

al-ruh al-nafsaniyah

The sensual soul; it is supposed to reside in the brain from where, through the nerves, it spreads itself in all parts of the body.

ru’us al-fada’il

Four cardinal virtues, viz. wisdom (hikmah), courage (shaja‘ah), temperance (‘iffah) and justice (‘adalah); each of them has been further divided by Muslim ethicists into many sub-species of virtues. See also ummahat al-fada’il.

Rituriqa

Rhetorica or the Rhetoric: Aristotle’s seventh book on logic, also entitled as al-Khatabah (q.v.) in Arabic; it deals with the art of persuading through oratorical devices.

Zaa

zuhal

The planet Saturn or its sphere ( falak, q.v.); see also al-kawakib al-sayyarah.

zaman

Time. It is dependent on movement and yet different from it. Whereas movement shows diversity in direction, time proceeds always and only in one direction. Time is known only in relation of before and after like a movement in a straight line and at a uniform rate. It, thus, can be expressed only in a series of continuous quantities (al-kamm al-muttasil, q.v.). Bodies are in time, not in their essence, but because they are in movement and movement is in time. Time belongs to the category of the created beings, but it is nowhere except in itself. So far as this world of ours is concerned it is measured and made known by the movements of the heavenly bodies. See also dahr and sarmad.

zuhrah

The planet Venus or its sphere ( falak, q.v.); see also al-kawakib al-sayyarah.

zauj al-zauj

"Pair of pair": a number, say 64, which is continuously divisible by two till the dividend is one.

Zainun

Zeno of Citium (c. 340-265 B.C.), the founder of Stoicism; distinguished generally in the Muslim works on history of philosophy from Zeno of Elea by calling the latter as Zainun al-Akbar (q.v.); see also Ashab al-Mazallah and Rawaqiyah.

Zainun al-Akbar

Zeno of Elea (c. 490-430 B.C.), disciple of Parmenides (Barminidus, q.v.). He is famous for his paradoxes on motion and plurality, which he advanced to defend the block-reality monism of his master. They, however, raised good deal of controversy and, thus, contributed to increase logical and mathematical rigour throughout the ages.

Seen

al-salibat al-juz’iyah

The particular affirmative proposition; see al-qadiyat al-salibat al-juz’iyah.

al-salibat al-kulliyah

The universal negative proposition; see al-qadiyat al-salibat al-kulliyah.

Sirr al-Asrar

Secreta Secretorum, an apocryphal work ascribed by Muslim scholars to Aristotle (Aristatalis, q.v.). It is a work on folklore, physiognomy and dietetics and is superstitious in its tone rather than scientific; hence its wide popularity in medieval times. It was also well known in the Western Caliphate, for a reference to it is found in al-‘Iqd al-Farid (The Unique Necklace), an anthology by Ibn ‘Abd Rabbih (d. 328/940) of Cordova. The first Arabic translation of the work from Greek original is ascribed to Yahya ibn Batriq (3rd/9th century C.E.).

sarmad

Absolute eternity, i.e. eternity without beginning (azal, q.v.) and also without end (abad, q.v.); sometimes considered time as absolutely fixed and unchanging. Sarmad is distinguished from dahr (q.v.) by maintaining that whereas dahr encompasses zaman (q.v.) sarmad encompasses dahr. Sarmad is used with reference to the relation between the two eternals (as, for example, between the essence of God and His attributes); dahr with reference to the relation between the eternal and the changing (as, for example, between God and the world); and zaman with reference to the relation between the two changing series (as, for example, between the movement of the heavenly spheres and the phenomenal changes on earth). See also zaman.

sufustah

Sophism, i.e. a piece of false reasoning which is employed. with the intention of deceiving somebody.

Suqratis

Socrates (c. 470-399 B.C.): Greek philosopher, the teacher of Plato whose Dialogues represent the essential philosophical teachings of the master. As Socrates did not himself write anything on philosophy, his influence on Muslim philosophical thought was only through Plato.

sam‘

a power placed in the nerves spread out in the cavity of the ear-hole (meatus) by which sounds are perceived. Sound is a vibratory movement of the outer air which is transmitted to the air in the ear-hole through impact. This transmitted vibration in the inner air stimulates the auditory nerves resulting in the sensation of hearing.

Sinibliqus

Simplicus : Greek philosopher, one of the last Neoplatonists. After the closing of Plato’s Academy in 529 C.E. he sought refuge at the court of Chosroës and remained there until about 533. He wrote commentaries on a number of Aristotle’s works, viz. De Coelo, Physica, De Anima and Categoriae.

su’ i‘tibar al-haml

The fallacy of secundum quid; see mughalatah su’ i‘tibar al-haml.

sur

The quantifier of a proposition indicated by the expressions. like "all", "some", "not all", "not some", "one", or "not one" specifying the quantity of a proposition; such a proposition is named al-qadiyat al-mussawarah (q.v.) or al-qadiyat al-mahsurah (q.v.) as opposed to al-qadiyat al-muhmalah (q.v.).

Sufistiqa

Sophistici Elenchi, Aristotle’s sixth book on logic, also entitled as al-Maghalit or al-Hikmat al-Muwwahmah (q.v.) in Arabic; it deals with the fallacies of logical reasoning, intentional or otherwise.