Qaf
al-Qatighuriyas
Categoriae or the Categories, the first book of Aristotle’s Organon (al-Arghanun, q.v.) on logic. It deals with the ten categories (al-maqulat al-‘ashr, q.v.), viz. substance (jauhar, q.v.), quantity (kamm, q.v.), quality (kaif, q.v.), relation (’idafah, q.v.), time (mata, q.v.), place (aina, q.v.), position (wad‘, q.v.), possession (milk, q.v.), passion (’inf‘al, q.v.) and action (fi‘l, q.v.).
qarabadin
The title of the first scientific book translated into Arabic in 64/683 from Syriac by Masarjawaih of Basra, a Jewish physician of Persian origin; it was a kind of Materia Medica originally composed in Greek (now lost) by a Christian (?) priest Aaron of Alexandria. See also Ahrun al-Quss.
qarinah
Lit. "Connection"; technically the connection between the two premises of a syllogism (qiyas, q.v.) wherein they are united by a middle term (al-hadd al-ausat, q.v.).
qadiyah
An assertoric statement or proposition, i.e. a judgment expressed in some particular language indicating the affirmation or denial of a certain relation between two terms, one of which is called subject (maudu‘, q.v.) and the other predicate (mahmul, q.v.).
al-qadiyat al-ihtimaliyah
A problematic or probable proposition, i.e. the proposition in which the connection between the subject and the predicate, through not true of all cases or in all circumstances is yet one which may exist in certain cases or in certain circumstances like the statement "Politicians may be trustworthy", "Cholera may not be fatal".
al-qadiyatan al-dakhilatan taht al-tadadd
The two sub contrary propositions, i.e. the two particular propositions having the same subject and predicate, but differing in quality -of the form "Some S is P" or "Some S is not P". Such propositions can both be true but cannot both be false, i.e. if one is true the other may be true or false but if one is false the other must be true.
al-qadiyatan al-mutadakhilatan
The subaltern propositions, i.e. the two propositions having the same subject and predicate, and of the same quality, but differing in quantity; in other words the universal proposition and its corresponding particular proposition of the same quality. In such propositions if the universal is true the particular is also true and if the particular is false the universal is also false. On the other hand, if the universal is false the particular may be either false or true, and if the particular is true the universal is either true or false.
al-qadiyatan al-mutadaddatan
The two contrary propositions, i.e. the two universal propositions having the same subject and predicate but differing in quality -of the form "All S is P" or "No S is P". Such propositions cannot both be true though they may both be false.
al-qadiyatan al-mutaqabilatan
The two opposite propositions, i.e. the propositions having the same subject or predicate but differing in quality or quantity or both; they are four kinds: (1) the two contrary propositions (al-qadiyatan al-mutadaddatan, q.v.), (2) the two sub contrary propositions (al-qadiyatan al-dakhilatan taht al-tadadd, q.v.), (3) the two contradictory propositions (al-qadiyatan al-mutaqabilatan bi’l-tanaqud, q.v.) and (4) the two subaltern propositions (al-qadiyatan al-mutadakhilatan, q.v.). See also lauh al-taqabul.
al-qadiyatan al-mutaqabilatan bi’l-tanaqud
The two contradictory propositions, i.e. the two propositions having the same subject and predicate but differing both in quality and quantity, viz. A and O or E and I and vice versa. Such propositions cannot both be true, nor can they both be false: if one is true the other must be false, and if one is false the other must be true.
al-qadiyat al-basitah
The simple proposition, i.e. the statement which as opposed to al-qadiyat al-murakkabah (q.v.), expresses a single judgment, e.g. "All men are rational animals" or "No men are stones".
al-qadiyat al-ba‘diyah
A particular proposition, i.e. the proposition in which, as opposed to al-qadiyat al-kulliyah (q.v.), the subject is take only in its partial extent or denotation like the statements: "Some men are not honest", "Some stones are gems", etc.; also called al-qadiyat al-juz’iyah (q.v.)
al-qadiyat al-thulathiyah
Tertii adjacentis, i.e. the proposition consisting of three parts: subject, predicate and copula, which is the usual form of a logical proposition; opposed to al-qadiyat al-thana’iyah (q.v.)
al-qadiyat al-thana’iyah
Secundi adjacentis, i.e. the proposition which consists solely of subject and predicate with out a copula or the one which the copula merges in the predicate like the statement in Arabic: "Zaid-un katib-un" (Zaid is a writer).
al-qadiyat al-juz’iyah
A particular proposition, i.e. the proposition in which, as opposed to al-qadiyat al-kulliyah (q.v.), the subject is take only in its partial extent or denotation like the statements: "Some men are not honest", "Some stones are gems", etc.; also called al-qadiyat al-ba‘diyah (q.v.)
al-qadiyat al-hamliyah
An attributive or categorical proposition in which the predicate is affirmed or denied of the subject without positing any condition for such an affirmation or denial like the statement: "Man is a rational animal" or "Man is not a stone".
al-qadiyat al-salibah
A negative statement or proposition in which the predicate denies something about the subject like the statement: "Man is not stone".
al-qadiyat al-salibat al-juz’iyah
The particular negative proposition, i.e. the proposition in which a part only of the extent or denotation of the subject is excluded from the entire class denoted by the predicate like the statement: "Some men are not writers" or "Some triangles are not equilateral"; represented in modern logic by the letter "O" and expressed in the form "Some S is not P".
al-qadiyat al-salibat al-kulliyah
The universal negative proposition, i.e. the proposition in which the whole of the class denoted by the subject is excluded from the whole of the class denoted by the predicate like the statement: "No men are stones" or "No circles are squares"; in modern logic represented by the letter "E" and expressed in the form "No S is P".
al-qadiyat al-shakhsiyat al-makhsusah
The singular proposition, i.e. the proposition the subject of which is a definite individual like the statement: “Ibn Sina is a philosopher”, or “This man is an Arab”; often called al-qadiyat al-mkhsusah (q.v.).
al-qadiyat al-shartiyah
The conditional proposition which consists not of two terms, subject and predicate, but of two clauses or propositions related to each other as antecedent (muqaddam, q.v.) and consequent (tali, q.v.) like the statement: "If the sun shines, it is day" (al-shartiyat al-muttasilah, q.v.) or as two disjunctives like: "Either this number is even or it is odd" (al-shartiyat al-munfasilah, q.v.)
al-qadiyat al-dururiyah
A necessary proposition, i.e. the proposition in which the predicate is universally and necessarily true of the subject and can never be otherwise, like the statement: "A triangle must be three-sided" or "The circumference of a circle must be equidistant from its center".
al-qadiyat al-kulliyah
A universal proposition, i.e. the one in which the predicate is affirmed or denied of the whole of the subject like the statements: "All men are mortal", "No man is stone"; opposed to al-qadiyat al-juz’iyah (q.v.).
al-qadiyat al-muttasilah
The conjunctive conditional or hypothetical proposition consisting of two clauses related to each other not as subject and predicate but as antecedent
(muqaddam, q.v.) and consequent (tali, q.v.) like the statement: "If it rains, the ground will be wet"; also called al-qadiyat al-shartiyah [al-muttasilah](q.v.)
[ed. I am not sure what term the author is trying to convey. Having said that I do believe that another name for the al-qadiyat al-muttasilah is al-qadiyat al-shartiyah al-muttasilah.]
al-qadiyat al-muhassalah
The proposition in which both the subject and the predicate are in the affirmative like the statement: "Some men are writers"; opposed to al-qadiyat al-ma‘dulah (q.v.)
al-qadiyat al-mahsurah
The determinate proposition which has a quantifier (sur, q.v.), i.e. the one in which the quantity of the subject is definitely indicated by the use of such expressions as "all", "some", or "not all", "not some"; opposed to al-qadiyat al-muhmalah (q.v.)
al-qadiyat al-mkhsusah
The singular proposition, i.e. the proposition the subject of which is a definite individual like the statement: “Ibn Sina is a philosopher”, or “This building is an mosque”; sometimes also called al-qadiyat al-shakhsiyat al-makhsusah (q.v.).
al-qadiyat al-murakkabah
The compound or exponible proposition, which as opposed to al-qadiyat al-basitah (q.v.) expresses more than one judgment like the statement: "All reptiles and birds are oviparous" or "Few people are rich". The latter proposition also expresses a compound proposition, namely, "Most people are not but some are", though the composition is only hidden in it, i.e. it is an exponsible proposition.
al-qadiyat al-musawwarah
The determinate proposition which has a quantifier (sur, q.v.), i.e. the one in which the quantity of the subject is definitely indicated by the use of such expressions as "all", "some", or "not all", "not some"; more usually called al-qadiyat al-mahsurah (q.v.)
al-qadiyat al-mutlaqah
An absolute or assertoric proposition, i.e. the one that has not modality (jihah, q.v.). Such a proposition simply affirms or denies a certain relation between subject and predicate as it is to be found in our experience of matters of fact without referring to the necessity or impossibility of that relation, for example the statements: "Ruminants are cloven-footed" and "Horses are not blue".
al-qadiyat al-ma‘dulah
The proposition in which, as opposed to al-qadiyat al-muhassalah (q.v.), either the subject or the predicate or both the subject and the predicate are in the negative; it thus may respectively be ma‘dulat al-maudu‘ (q.v.), ma‘dulat al-mahmul (q.v.), or ma‘dulat al-tarafain (q.v.).
al-qadiyat al-mumtana‘ah
The impossible proposition, i.e. the proposition in which, as opposed to al-qadiyat al-dururiyah (q.v.), the predicate or the subject is universally and necessarily in the negative and the affirmative is impossible to be considered like the predication of circularity to triangles.
al-qadiyat al-munfasilah
The disjunctive proposition consisting of two clauses or sentences related to each other not as subject and predicate but as two alternatives which mutually exclude each other like the statement: "Either the world is created or it is eternal"; also called al-shartiyat al-munfasilah (q.v.)
al-qadiyat al-muhmalah
Indesignate or indefinite proposition, i.e. a proposition without a quantifier (sur, q.v.); in such a proposition, as opposed to determinate proposition (al-qadiyat al-mahsurah, q.v.) the quantity of the subject remains undefined or unexpressed like the statement: "Women are wise" or "Students are lazy".
al-qadiyat al-mujibah
An affirmative statement or proposition in which the predicate affirms something about the subject, e.g. "Man is a rational animal".
al-qadiyat al-mujibah al-juz’iyah
The particular affirmative proposition, i.e. the proposition in which the class denoted by the predicate is affirmed of only a part of the class denoted by the subject like the statement: "Some dogs are black," or "Some snakes are poisonous"; represented in modern logic by the letter "I" and expressed in the form, "Some S is P".
al-qadiyat al-mujibat al-kulliyah
The universal affirmative proposition, i.e. the proposition in which the class denoted by the predicate is affirmed of the whole of the class denoted by the subject like the statement: "All women are animals"; represented in modern logic by the letter "A" and expressed in the form "All S is P".
al-qadiyat al-wujudiyah
The existential proposition, i.e. the statement denoting the existence of something but without signifying anything about its necessity or contingency.
qalb
Inversion, i.e. an immediate inference in which from a given proposition we derive another proposition, having for its subject the contradictory of the given subject; more often qalb is used for the proposition so derived.
al-quwwat al-ba‘ithah
The stimulative faculty, one of the two major kinds of he motive faculty (al-quwwat al-muharrikah, q.v.) of the animal soul. It is constituted of two powers or faculties: the attractive power (al-quwwat al-jadhibah, q.v.) and repulsive power (al-quwwat al-dafi‘ah, q.v.) -this later incites irascibility
(al-quwwat al-ghadbiyah, q.v.). The attractive power is further divided into two powers: the concupiscible power (al-quwwat al-shahwaniyah) and the appetitive power or desire (al-quwwat al-shauqiyah or al-quwwat al-nuzu‘iyah). It is because of the simulative faculty (al-quwwat al-ba‘ithah) that an animal is instinctively induced to move towards an object which is profitable or that which gives pleasure and avoid an object which is injurious or brings pain.
al-quwwat al-jadhibah
The attractive faculty or power because of which an animal is instinctively induced to be drawn towards an object which is for its well-being or brings pleasure to it; it is divided into two kinds: concupiscible power (al-quwwat al-shahwaniyah) and appetitive power or desire (al-quwwat al-shauqiyah or al-quwwat al-nuzu‘iyah). See also al-quwwat al-ba‘ithah.
al-quwwat al-hafizah
The faculty of memory; see al-quwwat al-mutadhakkirah.
al-quwwat al-dafi‘ah
The repulsive faculty or power because of which an animal is instinctively induced to avoid an object which is harmful to it or is likely to bring pain to it; if obstructed it arouses irascibility (al-quwwat al-ghadbiyah) with which it is often identified. See also al-quwwat al-ba‘ithah.
al-quwwat al-dhakirah
The faculty of memory or reminiscence; see al-quwwat al-mutadhakkirah.
al-quwwat al-shauqiyah
The appetitive faculty or desire; sometimes named as al-quwwat al-nuzu‘iyah; see also al-quwwat al-ba‘ithah.
al-quwwat al-tabi‘iyah
The natural powers or faculties, a term used collectively for the powers or faculties of the vegetable mind (al-nafs al-nabatiyah, q.v.), viz. the nutritive power (al-quwwat al-ghadhiyah, q.v.), the power of growth (al-quwwat al-namiyah, q.v.) and the power of reproduction (al-quwwat al-muwallidah, q.v.).
al-quwwat al-‘aqliyah
The rational faculty specific to the human mind; it is primarily the faculty of forming concepts or inferring the simple intelligible forms from the sensible forms as perceived through the senses. When the required concepts have been formed the rational faculty throws away the yoke of the senses and the sensible forms and is sufficient unto itself for all that it does. It compares and synthesizes various concepts and thus forms judgments about them; it now enters into argumentation and elaborate reasoning about these judgments and discuses physical and metaphysical problems. All concepts and judgments, however, are not obtained by the rational faculty; some are innate in it or are given to it through a kind of divine inspiration these are
the self-evident truths -like the whole is greater than the part or that contradictories cannot combine in the same thing at the same time. Further, the rational faculty has two forms: one theoretical or speculative (nazari) which enables us to have abstract thinking, and the other practical (‘amali) on which morality depends.
al-quwwat al-ghadhiyah
Nutritive power which when resident in a body changes another body into the form of the first.
al-quwwat al-ghadbiyah
The faculty or power of irascibility; see also al-quwwat al-dafi‘ah.
al-quwwat al-fa‘ilah
The efficient faculty, one of the two major kinds of the motive faculty (al-quwwat al-muharrikah, q.v.). It resides in the motor nerves and muscles of the body and is the producer of all bodily movements: it contracts the muscles and pulls the tendons and ligaments towards the starting point of a movement or relaxes them and stretches them away from the starting point.
al-quwwat al-mutakhayyilah
The faculty of imagination; located in the middle ventricle of the brain. the faculty abstracts and combines the forms of the sensible objects which it receives from the common sense (al-hiss al-mushtarik, q.v.); it thus frees the sensible percepts from the conditions of place, time and magnitude, and enables the mind to have images of objects even after they cease to make impressions on the mind, which, to some extent, is also the function of the formative faculty (al-quwwat al-mutasawwirah, q.v.). The imaginative faculty, however, is to be distinguished from the formative faculty in so far as the latter retains the actual shape and form of the sensible objects ask now through the external senses (al-hawas al-zahir, q.v.) while in the former the shape and form of the sensible objects may be other than that disclosed by the sense-organs. Hence, we can imagine objects which we have never perceived and shall perhaps never perceive through our senses.
al-quwwat al-mutadhakkirah
The faculty of memory or reminiscence located in the posterior ventricle of the brain. This faculty of the animal mind (al-nafs al-haywaniyah, q.v.) retains and recollects or remembers the meanings of the sensible objects which it has acquired through the estimative faculty (al-quwwat al-mutawahhimah, q.v.); to be distinguished from the formative faculty (al-quwwat al-mutasawwirah, q.v.) by the fact that whereas the formative faculty perceives and retains merely the shape and form of the sensible objects (say, a wolf), the faculty of memory apprehends and retains the meanings of and judgements about the sensible objects (say, the dangerousness of the wolf) as inferred by the estimative faculty (al-quwwat al-mutawahhimah, q.v.). The faculty of memory is also different from the faculty of imagination (al-quwwat al-mutakhayyilah, q.v.) in so far as the latter allows us to imagine a thing not perceived by the cognitive faculty (al-quwwat al-mudrikah, q.v.) or inferred by the estimative faculty; the former
does not allow the image or notion of a thing which is not so perceived or inferred.
al-quwwat al-mutasawwirah
The formative faculty or the faculty of representation, one of the internal senses (al-mudrikat al-batinah, q.v.) located in the last ventricle of the front brain. The function of the formative faculty is to retain and store everything that the common sense (al-hiss al-mushtarik, q.v.) forwards to it after having received it from the five external senses. The common sense merely receives the various forms of sensible objects and coalesces them together, it does not have the power to retain those forms after the sensible object have disappeared, just as water, though it can receive certain impressions, cannot retain or store them. Retention or preservation of the form assembled by the common sense is the function of the formative faculty; not to be confused, however, with the faculty of memory for which see (al-quwwat al-mutadhakkirah, q.v.).
al-quwwat al-mutawahhimah
The estimative faculty; located by Ibn Sina in the posterior part of the middle ventricle of the brain. It is the faculty which constitutes what may be said to be the “animal intelligence”. It is by this faculty that the animal know instinctively what is dangerous and harmful and what is profitable and useful, e.g. the sheep immediately know or infers by the estimative faculty that it has to flee from the wolf. To be distinguished from the formative faculty (al-quwwat al-mutasawwirah, q.v.) which represents things only in their actual form and dimension while the estimative faculty functions without this limitation or restriction. A beast of prey, for example, seeing animal from a distance, finds it smaller than its actual size and maybe also in somewhat different form and yet infers its actual size and form through estimative faculty and makes the appropriate attack. Also to be distinguished from the imaginative faculty (al-quwwat al-mutakhayyilah, q.v.) which functions without regard to the fact that things are or are not what they appear
al-quwwat al-muharrikah
The motive faculty resident in the animal soul (al-nafs al-haywaniyah, q.v.). It is constituted of two powers or faculties: simulative power (al-quwwat al-ba‘ithah, q.v.) and efficient power (al-quwwat al-fa‘ilah, q.v.). The simulative power is divided into attractive power (al-quwwat al-jadhibah, q.v.) and repulsive power (al-quwwat al-dafi‘ah, q.v.), which latter causes irascibility (al-quwwat al-ghadbiyah, q.v.); the attractive power has further two forms: concupiscible power (al-quwwat al-shahwaniyah) and the appetitive power or desire (al-quwwat al-shauqiyah or al-quwwat al-nuzu‘iyah). the efficient power resides in the motor nerves and the muscles of the body and is the producer of all bodily movements. See also (al-quwwat al-ba‘ithah, q.v.).
al-quwwat al-mudrikah
The perceptive or cognitive faculty. It is of two kinds: external (zahir) and internal (batin). The former includes the five senses (al-hawas al-khamsah): touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing; and the latter the inner senses, namely, common sense(al-hiss al-mushtarik, q.v.), formative faculty (al-quwwat al-mutasawwirah, q.v.), memory (al-quwwat al-mutadhakkirah, q.v.), imagination (al-quwwat al-mutakhayyilah, q.v.) and estimative faculty (al-quwwat al-mutawahhimah, q.v.). The objects cognised through the outer senses are called mahsusat (percepts) and those by the inner senses wajdaniyat (intuitions). What is perceived by the external senses first and then by the internal senses is the form of the sensible objects, and what is perceived by the internal senses alone is the meaning of a thing.
al-quwwat al-mustarji‘ah
A term used by Mulla Sadra (Muhammad ibn Ibrahim Sadr al-Din al-Shirazi) for the faculty of memory or recollection; see al-quwwat al-mutadhakkirah.
al-quwwat al-musawwirah
A term used by Ibn Sina synonymous with (al-quwwat al-mutasawwirah, q.v.) for formative faculty and by Mulla Sadra (Muhammad ibn Ibrahim Sadr al-Din al-Shirazi) for the faculty of imagination (al-quwwat al-mutakhayyilah, q.v.).
al-quwwat al-mufkkirah
The cogitative faculty which works first by way of abstraction with regard to percepts and then draws notions or concepts out of them. See also al-quwwat al-‘aqliyah.
al-quwwat al-muwallidah
The power of generation or reproduction which by drawing from an animal body a part similar to itself in potentiality is capable of producing other bodies similar to it in actuality.
al-quwwat al-natiqah
The rational faculty specific to human beings; See al-quwwat al-‘aqliyah.
al-quwwat al-namiyah
The power of growth resident in a living body by which it increases without changing its form until it attains its full maturity. See also al-nafs al-nabatiyah.
al-quwwat al-nuzu‘iyah
Desire or appetitive faculty See also al-quwwat al-ba‘ithah.
al-quwwat al-wahmiyah
The estimative faculty; see al-quwwat al-mutawahhimah.
Qaurniyah
The school of Cyrenaicism founded by Aristippus (Aristifus, q.v.) of Cyrene; hence the name. It holds the doctrine of enjoyment for its own sake. As pleasure is the only intrinsic good, everything, including virtue and philosophy, must be judged according to its capacity to bring pleasure. All
pleasures are equal in value; they differ only in intensity and duration. Hence, physical pleasures are preferable to intellectual or moral pleasures, for the former are the keenest; and immediate pleasures are preferable to the pleasures of the future, for the they are more sure. Opposed to Kalbiyah (q.v.).
al-qaul al-jazim
An assertoric or declaratory statement as opposed to an exhortation, command, request, or question.
al-quwa al-nafsaniyah
The animal or sensual powers or faculties. The term is used collectively for al the powers of the animal mind (al-nafs al-haywaniyah, q.v.), i.e. those common with the powers of the vegetable mind (al-nafs al-nabatiyah, q.v.) and those specific to the animal mind, viz. motive power (al-quwwat al-muharrikah, q.v.) and perceptive power (al-quwwat al-mudrikah, q.v.) and their different kinds and sub-kinds.
al-Qiyas
The Arabic title give to Aristotle’s third book on logic, viz. Analytica Priora; see Analutiqa.
qiyas
Syllogism, i.e. a form of mediate inference in which a conclusion (natijah, q.v.) necessarily results from the two given propositions taken together, one of which is the major premise (al-muqaddamat al-kubra, q.v.) and other the minor premise (al-muqaddamat al-sughra, q.v.), because of a connection (qarinah, q.v.) between the two premises wherein they are united through a common, i.e. middle term (al-hadd al-ausat, q.v.). The conclusion, because it necessarily follows the premises, is also sometimes called ridf, i.e. the consequent. The major premise is that in which the major term (al-hadd al-akbar, q.v.) occurs, and this is the one which occurs as a predicate (mahmul, q.v.) in the conclusion; while the minor premise is that in which the minor term (al-hadd al-asghar, q.v.) occurs, and this is the one which occurs as subject (maudu, q.v.) in the conclusion. Thus in the stock syllogism: "All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; hence Socrates is mortal", "All men are mortal" is the major premise, "Socrates is a man", the minor premise which together lead to the conclusion: "Socrates is mortal". Qiyas has many forms for which see below. For the various kinds of fallacies to be avoided in syllogistic argument, see in particular mughalatah ishtirak al-lafzi and mughalatat al-’atraf al-’arba‘ah.
al-qiyas al-istithna’i
Syllogism "by exclusion", i.e. the syllogism in which the major premise is either a conditional conjunctive proposition (al-shartiyat al-muttasilah, q.v.) or a conditional disjunctive proposition (al-shartiyat al-munfasilah, q.v.) and the minor is arrived at by the exclusion (’istithna’) of either of the two parts of the major. The conclusion, either in the affirmative or in the negative, is actually (bi’l-fi‘l) given in this kind of syllogism whereas in (al-qiyas al-iqtirani, q.v.) it is not so give except potentially (bi’l-quwwah). Al
qiyas al-istithna’i has two kinds: mixed hypothetical (al-sharti al-muttasil, q.v.) and mixed disjunctive (al-sharti al-munfasil, q.v.): the former, if the major premise, is a conditional conjunctive, i.e. hypothetical proposition, the latter if it is conditional disjunctive proposition.
al-qiyas al-’idmari
An abridged form of syllogism, technically called enthymeme; see al-qiyas al-mujiz.
al-qiyas al-iqtirani
"Syllogism by coupling or by combination", i.e. the syllogism in which two propositions or premises (kubra, q.v. and sughra, q.v.) are coupled together, having one term in common (al-hadd al-ausat, q.v.) and the two others different from each other, so that there necessarily follows from this coupling or combination of the two premises or propositions composed of two different terms as subject and predicate. It corresponds to the categorical syllogism (al-qiyas al-hamli, q.v.). See also al-qiyas al-istithna’i.
al-qiyas al-’iqna‘i
Persuasive syllogism, a mode of reasoning to persuade or incite someone to take a certain course of action: the stronger form of it like al-qiyas al-jadali, (q.v.) is based on mashhurat (q.v.) and musallamat (q.v.); and the weaker one like al-qiyas al-khitabi (q.v.) on maznunat (q.v.) and maqbulat (q.v.).
al-qiyas al-’ijazi
An abridged form of syllogism, technically called enthymeme; see al-qiyas al-mujiz.
al-qiyas al-jadali
A dialectical syllogism consisting of the premises of the kind of mashhurat (q.v.) and musallamat (q.v.) and for controverting the standpoint or thesis of the adversary (khasm, q.v.) and establishing one’s own.
al-qiyas al-jali
One of the two kinds of analogical reasoning in matters religious and fiqhi (al-qiyas al-shar‘i, q.v.) employed by the jurists and the learned of Islam. Wine, for example, has been forbidden in the Qur’an under the word khamr, i.e. as a thing which intoxicates; it is therefore evident (jali) through analogical reasoning that any other intoxicant, say, opium, is also forbidden.
al-qiyas al-hamli
(Pure) categorical syllogism, i.e. the one in which each one of the two premises is a categorical proposition (al-qadiyat al-hamliyah, q.v.); see also al-qiyas al-iqtirani.
al-qiyas al-khitabi
A rhetorical syllogism grounded on maznunat (q.v.) and maqbulat (q.v.), i.e. more or less probable premises; used for persuasion rather than for instruction. See also al-qiyas al-’iqna‘i.
al-qiyas al-khafi
One of the two kinds of analogical reasoning of religious nature (al-qiyas al-shar‘i, q.v.) employed by the jurists and the learned of Islam. In the Hadith, for example, it is enjoined that one goat in forty must be given in charity; it is possible that some poor persons may be more in need of money than of a goat; hence it may be argued on the basis of al-qiyas al-khafi that it is permissible to give the value of the goat rather than the goat itself in charity.
al-qiyas al-khulf
Syllogism through reductio ad absurdum; a roundabout mode of argument by which a proposition is proved by deducing a contradiction from the negation of the proposition taken together with other propositions which have already been granted or proved. This kind of syllogism is often employed either to establish a proposition or premise by showing that its contradictory involves impossible consequences or to disprove a proposition by showing that its consequences are absurd.
qiyas al-daur
Argument in a circle like saying that "No S is P" and its converse "No P is S" which remains a valid mode of reasoning so long as the terms distributed in one proposition are also distributed in the other.
qiyas dhu’l-jihatain
The dilemma, i.e. a complex syllogism in which the major premise is constituted of two conditional conjunctive propositions (al-shartiyat al-muttasilah, q.v.), the minor premise is a conditional disjunctive proposition (al-shartiyat al-munfasilah, q.v.) the alternatives of which either affirm the antecedents or deny the consequents of the major and the conclusion is either categorical or disjunctive. This may be illustrated by the following example:
If you marry, you will have responsibilities; if you remain single, you will feel lonely.
Either you will marry, or you will remain single.
Therefore, either you will have responsibilities or you will feel lonely.
The dilemma to be valid is to comply with the rules of the conditional conjunctive syllogism (qiyas al-sharti al-muttasil, q.v.), that is either there is the affirmation of the antecedent (wad‘ al-muqaddam, q.v.) or the denial of the consequent (raf‘ al-tali, q.v.).
al-qiyas al-sufista’i
Sophism, i.e. a mode of reasoning which appears to establish a conclusion without really doing so with an intention to deceive the adversary in discussion. See mughalatah and the various forms of logical fallacies given under it.
al-qiyas al-sharti al-muttasil
The conditional conjunctive syllogism, one of the kinds of al-qiyas al-istithna’i (q.v.). It is a complex syllogism which has for its major premise a conditional conjunctive proposition (al-sharti al-muttasilah, q.v.) of which in the minor premise the antecedent (muqaddam) is affirmed or the consequent
(tali) denied; corresponds to the mixed hypothetical syllogism in modern logic. See also (mughalatah raf‘ al-muqaddam, q.v.) and (mughalatah wad‘ al-tali, q.v.).
al-qiyas al-sharti al-munfasil
The conditional disjunctive syllogism, one of the kinds of al-qiyas al-istithna’i (q.v.). It is a complex syllogism which has for its major premise a conditional disjunctive proposition (al-sharti al-munfasilah, q.v.), either one or the other alternative of which in the minor premise is denied or affirmed: affirmation of one or the other alternative, however, leads to a conclusion only and only if the two alternatives are mutually exclusive (mani‘at al-jam‘, q.v.).
al-qiyas al-shar‘i
The analogical reasoning employed by the jurists and the learned of Islam on the basis of the teaching of the Qur’an, the Hadith and ’ijma‘, corresponding to tamthil (q.v.) in logic; it is of two kinds al-qiyas al-jali (q.v.) and al-qiyas al-khafi (q.v.).
al-qiyas al-shi‘ri
Poetic syllogism, based on mukhayyallat (q.v.), i.e. imaginative data or premises advanced to stir the soul of the hearer through the magic of words, and thus often force upon his mind to imagine something to be something else. See also al-qiyas al-’iqna‘i.
al-qiyas al-damir
An abridged form of syllogism, technically called enthymeme; see al-qiyas al-mujiz.
al-qiyas al-kamil
The perfect syllogism, the name give to syllogism in the first figure (al-shakl al-awwal, q.v.); for it is only form of syllogism which yields the conclusion in any one of the four traditional propositions, viz. universal affirmative (al-mujibat al-kulliyah, q.v.), particular affirmative (al-mujibah al-juz’iyah, q.v.), universal negative (al-salibat al-kulliyah, q.v.) and particular negative (al-salibat al-juz’iyah, q.v.); more particularly it is the only form in which the conclusion is available in the form of a universal affirmative or general proposition which is needed for scientific purposes.
al-qiyas al-murakkab
Polysyllogism, i.e. a combination of two or more syllogisms which are so connected with one another that they ultimately lead to a simple conclusion; see al-qiyas al-musalsal.
al-qiyas al-musawat
Syllogism by equations in which the predicate of one premise becomes the subject of the next, like saying: "A is equal to B; B is equal to C; therefore A is equal to C". This form of syllogism is based on an implicit presupposition, which it is necessary to prove before the conclusion becomes established. The presupposition here that things equal to the same thing are equal to each other, being axiomatically true, validates the above
syllogism. Should we argue, however, that "A is half of B, B is half of C, therefore A is half of C", it would be invalid (‘aqim, q.v.) syllogism for the presupposition employed in this second case remains unwarranted: the half of the half is not a half but a quarter.
al-qiyas al-musalsal
A train of syllogism consisting of two or more syllogisms connected in such a way that the conclusion of one becomes the premise of the other so that at the end they lead to a single conclusion, for example:
(1) All B is C
All A is B
Therefore, All A is C
(2) All C is D
All A is C
Therefore, All A is D
(3) All D is E
All A is D
Therefore, All A is E
(4) All E is F
All A is E
Therefore, All A is F
al-qiyas al-muqassam
Perfect induction, i.e. the process of arriving at a general proposition by counting all the particular instances of a certain class like the statement: "All the months of the lunar year have days less than thirty-one." Perfect induction is perfect only in name: it is merely perfect or complete enumeration and lacks two essential characteristics of scientific induction, viz. inductive leap from the observed to the non-observed instances and the causal connection between the facts observed.
al-qiyas al-mujiz
An Abridged syllogism or enthymeme, i.e. the syllogism in which one of the premises, major (kubra, q.v.) or minor (sughra, q.v.), or conclusion (natijah, q.v.) is not explicitly stated; for example, from a women having milk (in her breasts) it is inferred that she has conceived. Fully expressed it may be put in the following syllogistic form:
All women who have milk have conceived.
This women has milk.
Therefore, she has conceived.
Sometimes al-qiyas al-mujiz is named as al-qiyas al-’ijazi, al-qiyas al-’idmari, al-qiyas al-damir, or mutarakmah.
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