3. Analysis
3.1. Environmental Ethics
Ethics is a discipline that deals with the finding of approval and disapproval. Ethics, as a study, has attracted a lot of attention in the academic field, especially in philosophy. The judgments made in ethics include distinguishing the following: a right and wrong deed, bad or good actions, desirable or undesirable qualities, desirability and good judgment of deeds, and the states of dealings, nature, ends, and items.
Environmental ethics deals with ways in which human behavior affects the natural environment surrounding the humans. In normal life, human beings interact with the environment as they undertake their day-to-day activities. Environmental ethics can also be defined as various ways of maintaining a good relationship between the environment and the human beings.
In this sense, forest ethics also deal with ways in which human behavior affects natural forest surrounding the human beings.
This is an appropriate definition that suits this study. One of the ways of maintaining a good relationship between the environment and human beings is by making people understand that it is their religious duty to protect and take good care of the environment. There should be rules and regulations that govern the interaction between the natural environment and such rules can be found in religious scripture.
3.2. Examples of Forest Management
Ethics Forests are an important portion of life for people who live in and around them. Forests provide many of our material needs, and they are useful for many various reasons, not the least of which is enjoyment. Given that forests provide so many services, they have “a number of passive and active use values: economic, ecological, social, symbolic, spiritual, and scientific values.”
For more than 25 years, there have been a number of concerns relating to forests, forest management, and forestry that have emerged and attracted much attention all over the world. The development of these concerns indicates recently that forestry should not only be economically, ecologically, environmentally, and socially reasonable, but it should also be ethically acceptable.
Ethical apprehensions are affected by people’s beliefs concerning nature, the value of nature to human life, and the role of human beings in our use of the environment. People’s recognition of the different goals and approaches in forest management is interrelated with the related values that individuals embrace.
3.2.1. Brazil
The Brazilian government introduced laws through the Brazilian Institute for the Environmental and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA). The rules and laws implemented were to help prevent illegal cutting of trees by the citizens. Failure to adhere to such rules could lead to severe punishment of the law breakers.
The immense changes in the Brazilian policies played a very crucial role in reducing the level of deforestation in the country. This is one of the most efficient ways of conserving the environment. This is according to the research conducted by CPI/PUC-Rio, which presented the issue of policy change impact on environmental conservation as empirical evidence.
The Real-Time System for Detection of Deforestation (DETER) is a satellite-based technology that helped in the identification of deforestation actions in Brazil. This monitoring technique played a key role in ensuring that the environment was conserved and protected from harmful human actions. The IBAMA, with the assistance of DETER was able to easily locate deforestation activities taking place in Brazil. Punishment to the people cutting trees illegally was done in a more effective way than before DETER was introduced.
Studies show that the introduction of DETER played a crucial role in environmental conservation in various ways. It allowed for the easy locating of areas where deforestation activities were taking place. With easy location, monitoring and target ability was greatly improved and, hence, the government officials could efficiently control deforestation without having to put more effort into discovery.
In 2004, the Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Deforestation in the Legal Amazon (PPCDAm) was passed.
The main goal of this plan was to control and put off deforestation actions in the country.
One of its strategies was the adoption of DETER. The enlarged ability of the IBAMA was to aim its rule enforcement assets in the Amazon areas via DETER to attain amazing outcomes.
Between 2007 and 2011, there was 75% less deforestation compared to the time when there where there is no fines imposed lawbreakers.
New policies being put into place really played a great role in preventing deforestation in Brazil. The various strategies used in controlling deforestation included: frequent land checking, strict control of prohibited logging, and construction of conservation spots. In order for any individual to cut trees in the Amazon, he or she should have to have a license. Licensing is one of the best ways to control deforestation because it allows for the cutting of trees only in specified areas.
Brazil has seen agricultural development reduce the rate of poverty and hunger in their country. Indigenous peoples in Brazil are greatly benefiting because they have power (20%) over some reasonable parts of the Amazon. The government has offered enough support to these people through various ways, such as issuing them with official titles. The government has also protected them from unlawful intrusion by farmers, ranchers, and miners who are not indigenous.
The logging rules and regulations have been strongly enforced. Examples of such laws include:
closing of illegal sawmills, seizure of illegal timber, and punishing of individuals who act against the law. Even the top corrupt officials who engaged themselves in illegal logging were jailed.
This confirms that the government is committed in its decision to stop deforestation.
There is a current climate-change mitigation mechanism used to handle issues of environmental crisis in Brazil. The mechanism in question is the “Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries” (REDD). Forests act as homes for indigenous people, who “often find themselves in a marginalized position.” Laws and rules have been put into place to ensure that the indigenous people’s rights are provided for. The global and state laws emphasize having good relationships between these people and the natural environment. The relationship can be taken in a stewardship worldview where the indigenous people should be given their moral rights. This framework is only applicable to global environmental rulings. The reason for this shift is the new moral approach toward environmental law guidelines. This approach can be noticed in some trends in global and state laws.
Most analysts see it as a useful way to solve various challenges facing the environment.
Stewardship has played a crucial role in reconciling conflicts between environmental policies and the rights of the indigenous people. Stewardship is considered to be the best tool for bringing into line the international human rights laws and international environmental laws in relation to the rights of the indigenous people.
REDD tries to unite the environmental policies with indigenous people’s rights. The two may harmonize or may fail to unite in the long run. In addition, REDD provides for an opportunity for the environmental policies and the indigenous people’s rights to be protected as a result of allowing a stewardship ethical worldview to take place.
Even though Brazil has had very strong laws for forest protection since 2006, recently the legislation is losing strength. “Instead of strengthening forest protection in light of their critical role in climate change protection, the Brazilian forests came under even graver danger with a 2012 revision of the 1965 Forest Code, which greatly reduced protections in place for over 70 years.” Despite presidential vetoes of the most egregious provisions in the 2012 revisions, the nearly wholesale dismantling of the forest and ecosystem protections still stand as current Brazilian law.”
It now looks like they are in the process of strengthening the laws again.
In summation, the main reasons to control deforestation in Brazil are to combat illegal cutting of trees as a natural resource, to protect the region as a forest area, and to protect the rights of indigenous people who live there. Additionally, Brazil is trying to control forest destruction in response to climate change.
3.2.2. Nepal and New Zealand
Nepal is focusing on controlling deforestation for a different reason: Nepal’s issues seem to revolve around the question of who should be responsible for the land. Nepal has some part of its forests being managed by local communities via Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs). It has been shown that the management of the forests by local communities yields better results because the rate of illegal tree cutting is lower than in the forests managed by the government.
The question of who owns the land in the government’s hands is still unanswered in Nepal. The communities are provided with some of basic needs and resources. In such a country, local governance needs to be reinforced so as to perk up the likelihood of fair forest stewardship. The table below explains how Nepal can improve their forest conservation process.
Clarifying land tenure and strengthening local governance will the improve chances of equitable forest stewardship (See table 1).
Table 1. Management, Harvesting, Sale, and Land Tenure Rights Under Forest Governance Regimes in Nepal
Management regime
|
Approximate area
|
Forest management
|
Harvesting of forest products
|
Sale of forest products
|
Land tenure
|
Community forestry
|
1,219,272 hectares (25% of the forest area)
|
CFUGs
|
CFUGs
|
CFUGs w/government permission
|
Governmen
|
In relation to rights, stewardship can be viewed as the principled imperative of such rights. Examples of the rights of the indigenous people include giving support to them in relation to environmental matters and the climate-change perspectives. Indigenous people’s stewardship role can be seen in their daily behaviors, welfare, customary environmental understanding, and cultural distinctiveness as an element of their identity. Arguing for indigenous people’s rights and, at the same time, giving a substitute way for the security of some human rights can be seen as an overarching notion. This can be explained using an example of a land tenure system and the inappropriateness among land rights and possession of local people and the standard communal law approach to various possessions.
Maoris, the indigenous Polynesian people of New Zealand, trust that the people belong to the land and not the vice-versa. According to them, possession of land should not be through the legal system. There are proposals for the introduction of a stewardship claim as compensation for damages that were caused to indigenous societies due to effects of climate change.
Often times, indigenous peoples have a stewardship approach toward the environment, and their attitude to land is as “guardians.”
This view of people belonging to the land shows the real value of the environment for the environment’s sake.
3.2.3. USA and other English-speaking countries
The view above-people belonging to the land shows the real value of the environment for the environment’s sake-also can be seen in the USA and
other speaking-English countries where they protect the forest because it is a part of the environment. The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) is a non-profit, non-governmental program that establishes standards to promote the responsible management of forests globally. Many people believe that the only way to preserve forests is by banning the use of its products, but the daily consumption of forest products cannot be ignored.
For example, on average, Americans use close to six trees worth of paper each year. The FSC, therefore, being the standard measure in certification of forests, is trying to control the market to consider policies that represent a preference for FSC-certified products. Consumers and governments look for these certified products, as well, and the US Green Building Council’s Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program provides incentives to encourage the use of FSC-certified materials.
Forests are protected according to strict ecological and social norms under FSC certification, and forest fiber is tracked the distance to the shopper through the certification system with products having the FSC “check-tree” logo.
(See Figure 2.)
Figure 2. FSC Logo.
Additionally, since the FSC is the gold standard in forest certification, it is the only program that is supported by groups such as the World Wildlife Federation (WWF), the Sierra Club, Greenpeace, the Natural Resources Defense Council, and the National Wildlife Federation.
Wide areas nowadays, especially in the US and Canada, have become certified under the FSC’s system.
During the same period of time the FSC was being established, many non-governmental organizations were also being established. For instance, by the end of the 20th century, different organizations of conservation recognized the stewardship concept as a way to preserve the environment. To illustrate:
At the beginning of the 1990s, non-profit “stewardship” organizations aimed to protect different areas and species across North America and most English-speaking areas. The organizations protect rivers, gardens, coastlines, and species located locally, nationally, and regionally in these areas.
In addition, other stewardship programs were implemented around the Englishspeaking world:
United States Forest Stewardship Program (1990)
United Kingdom’s Countryside Stewardship Scheme (1991)
Canadian Province of Ontario’s Stewardship Program (1995)
Canadian Habitat Stewardship Programme (2000)
Australia’s Environmental Stewardship Programme (2007)
Consequently, there has been an increase in the use of the terms “environmental stewardship” and “forest stewardship.” The term “stewardship” is increasingly replacing the term “management” when it comes to environmental conservation (Table 2).
Table 2. Examples of the Wide Use of the Term Stewardship in Land Use and Conservation Literature
Term
|
Use
|
Stewardship
|
In various aspects of land management and conservation
|
Land Stewardship
|
Especially in the USA and Canada in relation to both agricultural land
and forests
|
3.2.4. Countries with significant Muslim influence
3.2.4.1. The Philippines
Ten percent of the inhabitants of Mindanao, which is the second-biggest southern-most main island in the Philippines are Muslims.
The Act for the Autonomous Region in Muslim
Mindanao (ARMM) was the first law dealing with management of forests in the Philippines.
This law has been in place since October 2007.
ARMM is composed of all the Philippines’
dominant Muslim provinces, that is to say, Basilan, Lanao del Sur, Shariff Kabunsuan, Maguindanao, Sulu and Tawi-Tawi, and the Islamic City of Marawi.
ARMM has played a crucial role in reducing deforestation in the Philippines. ARMM is highly treasured as the correlative element of the Philippines terrain. This Act was formulated and implemented through the assistance of various groups, such as the Muslim ethics and law leaders, social scientists, government units, and leaders of the society.
For instance, Republic Act No.9054, or RA No.9054, is an act to augment and support the Organic Act for ARMM, adjusting for the purpose Republic Act No.6734, named “An Act Providing for the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao” as adjusted.
This law, when released and enforced, forbid the cutting down of trees in many areas of the country.
The proclamations issued by the National Government declaring old growth or natural forests and all water sheds within the autonomous region as forest reserves are reiterated in RA 9054. The forest reserves shall not be subjected to logging operations of any kind or nature. (Art. X, Sec. 5).
Many activities toward forests were either stopped or changed when RA 9054 was approved. To illustrate, the National Government or the Regional Government that had granted forest concessions, timber licenses, contracts, or agreements of any kind or nature, over forest reserves in the autonomous region were “cancelled, nullified and voided and shall not be renewed until 30 years after the date of approval of RA 9054. (Art. X, Sec. 5)”
RA 9054 encourages reforestation. This occurs by requiring the setting aside of funds to be devoted to reforestation projects and other environmental activities. According to the law, ten percent of the shares of the internal revenue taxes of the Regional Government, the provinces, cities, municipalities and barangays of the autonomous region as well as all allocations for the development of the region by the National Government shall be devoted to reforestation projects and other environmental activities to enhance the protection and development of the region’s environment. (Art. X, Sec. 5)”
The major policies highlighted in this Act include trust and stewardship as keys for forest preservation. This Act is based on particular Islamic principles and approaches of communitybased management. This Act gives priority to the community when it comes to administration and the use of forest property. Importantly, the Act’s principal strategies are community forest management and community-based forest management.
3.2.4.2. Indonesia
Perhaps a similar act could be implemented in Indonesia, where the high rate of tropical forest loss is regrettable, especially in Sumatra.
It has been shown that Indonesia has the highest number of Muslim believers in the world, approximately 88% of the population. Islamic religion, in the context of Sumatra, has the ability to incorporate customary ways of environmental management practices, which are being managed by the local government organizations called Nagari. The Nagari contain many natural resources, such as forests, farm land, and lakes. Furthermore, the Islamic religion explains in detail the relationship that exists between God, nature, and human beings. Stewardship has been stressed by the doctrine of Khalifa whereby Muslims are encouraged to conserve natural resources.
This religion acknowledges that everything was created by God.
Unfortunately, the people of Sumatra appear unfamiliar with many management principles within Islam and they are not followed all through Sumatra at the local or state level.
Therefore, the main focus of the Nagari project was to educate home teachers, religious leaders, and society members to effectively spread and apply Islamic knowledge and laws regarding environmental conservation. Lastly, the project was prepared in a way as to perform the proper monitoring and proceedings needed to assess how well the project’s objectives were being achieved at the local level.
3.3. Environmental Stewardship Philosophies
The term stewardship is originated from sty-ward, the one that keeps an eye on animal fields, as well it has a relation to the word “warden” (in nature conservation). Other terms, such as custodian, trustee, and guardian,
have the same definition as steward, are they are also used at times in relation to land used.
A survey conducted recently about the preservation of, and literature about, land use applies a new explanation of stewardship. The new explanation is adjusted by relying on natural resources management. It defines stewardship as:
The responsible use (including conservation) of natural resources in a way that takes [a] full and balanced account of the interests of society, future generations, and other species, as well as private needs, and accepts significant answerability to society. A religious interpretation would require the phrase “and ultimately to God” to be added.
The stewardship word has a culture in philosophy, especially in ethics, where it is mainly applied to represent answerable consumption of resources. Additionally, it’s been designed as a meaning of articulating “environmental ethics” or “land ethics.”
The main idea of stewardship is the caring of particular things “in trust” for another being: for God, a god, nature, society, or future generations.
This principle of stewardship can be found in an eco-centric philosophy. Such philosophy focuses mainly on the role of human beings as the responsible party for the environment as stewards.
According to the eco-centric view, nature dictates the way people should behave as guardians of the ecosystem. See Figure 3.
Figure 3. The Eco-Centric Model.
There exists another option for environmentalism. This option is the ability to reach further than the religion and political debates on eco-centrism and anthropocentrism. It is theocentric, and it is not anthropocentric or eco-centric environmentalism.
Environmental ethics and stewardship mostly comes from theo-centrism, because in this view, humans are the guardians of the earth as entrusted by God,
which raises the question about the morality of deforestation.
To illustrate, O’Riordans (see Figure 4) illustrates the relationship between God, human beings, and nature. It requires that human beings should act according to a required code of conduct and morals. In addition, it explains why people should behave in those given ways.
Figure 4. O’Riordan’s View to Show the Theo-Centric Model.
Even though the stewardship principal is approximately encouraged by religious concerns, this fact might enhance the way that the managers of earthly resources see the stewardship principal. The term stewardship is in worldwide used, indicating that either the religious concept is not known well or that it is not an obstruction.
Stewardship is a connection of beliefs and worth relating to nature that derives a sustainable relation with the ecosystem. This term is possibly used worldwide as a way of respecting the values and responsibilities toward the environment. Interestingly, this sustainable relation to the environment is perfectly cited in different areas and may be preferred as the current common situation.
3.4. Environmental Ethical Philosophies (moving beyond anthropocentrism toward ecocentrism and theo-centrism)
There is a widespread opinion concerning anthropocentrism in today’s world. Most people think that anthropocentrism is playing a key part in causing environmental destruction such as deforestation. The anthropocentric view gives various reasons as to why people cut down trees: to get money, to build homes, and ignoring the innate value of trees. By doing this, the environment is destroyed and other global challenges will eventually emerge.
The anthropocentric view has been considered as the main cause of ecological challenges. People are acting in ways that compromise ecological conservation.
Many philosophies related to environmental conservation rise to help conserve the environment rather than allowing the anthropocentric view to take control. Such philosophies focus more on the role of human beings to take care of the environment as stewards, which comes under the heading of “eco-centrism.”
Many of the ethical approaches use the word eco-centrism as the heading in many cases.
A society’s change of attitude in the direction of the eco-centric philosophies is not in any way opposed by researchers or a call to think according to the eco-centric view, which is based on feelings.
Forest administrators should take the responsibility of educating people on their role as environmental stewards.
By doing so, people’s perception will change positively, and they will start appreciating the need to take part in
environmental conservation. They will also change their attitude toward the perception of forest managers, in general, as they learn to appreciate them.
Forest managers have a great responsibility of educating people on issues of stewardship so as to create awareness about what people are expected to do. In this way, the environment will be conserved.
Stewardship is often connected to theo-centrism,
which is a godly approach to the world. It also develops from the type of religious faith where only God is the earth’s creator and sustainer, including Christianity, Islam, and Judaism.
This is an environmentalism that is theocentric not an anthropocentric or eco-centric.
Through its recognition for the completeness of the creations of God, theo-centrism leads to fresh inquiries about the morals related to persistent issues like the destruction of forestland.
(See Table 3.)
Stewardship focuses on the care and concern of all the inhabitants of an environment without favoring human beings. Human beings are considered stewards and, hence, they should take good care of the environment. Stewardship, therefore, gives human beings special roles to perform, compared to other inhabitants in the environment. Human beings have the ability to take care of nature and also the ability to destruct it, because they are over the control of other things in nature. This does not in any way make them superior than other inhabitants of nature.
Stewardship should not make people think that they can exercise authority over everything in nature. They should interact positively with the nature so as to ensure a good relationship among the inhabitants of the environment.
It has been mentioned previously that the term stewardship has been widely used recently. This popular use assumes that, even though the stewardship terminology is an ethic derived from religious context, it approves that religion might not be a barrier or an issue of application of this ethic.
This study aims to not argue philosophy; rather, it aims to find a universal societal attitude toward stewardship in both Muslim and non-Muslim regions, in order to manage and combat the issue of deforestation.
A new call has been approached worldwide by The United Nations Millennium Declaration, which introduces a new ethic of preservation and stewardship. It states, “We resolve therefore to adopt in all our environmental actions a new ethic of conservation and stewardship.”
This call is duplicated in the Secretary General’s Millennium Report.
0%
Author: Misbah Alghamdi
