CHAPTER 2 The Ṣaḥīfa and ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn: An insight into their Context and Setting
1. Setting the Context
This chapter will serve to be preparing to the thesis generally. It will examine the contemporary thoughts and trends of the time and milieu duringʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn, such as the social, political and theological state of affairs and characteristics of the time, going back to the period of his great grandfather Prophet Muḥammad (d.11/632) and prior, referring to the most significant issues as seen complementary to the thesis.
This would afford the study with a fuller understanding of ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn as it is necessary that the wider context of his life is examined. It could be argued that it may be close to impossible to understand the fuller and wider perspective of the texts and the personality of ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn without considering his background inasmuch as him being from the Banū Hāshim and being the great grandson of Prophet Muḥammad and grandson of ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib, both towering and significant figures in the Islamic landscape.
However, in order to confine this study within boundaries only the most considerable events will be expounded upon, as the enquiry otherwise would be far too broad and also fall outside the parameters of this work.
It is commonly accepted amongst all Muslims that Prophet Muḥammad and his family hold a high and esteemed position within Islam, so much so that they are accorded an elevated rank in the Qur’ān above all other believers. This is in line with the Qur’ān relating similar importance to past prophets and their families, prophets who prayed for divine assistance and favour towards their righteous family members, kin and offspring.
A well known example of this is the verse known as the verse of ṭathīr (purification).
...And Allāh only wishes to remove all abomination from you, ye members of the Family, and to make you pure and spotless.
Another example depicting the status of the family of the Prophet can be seen in the following verse:
We gave him Isaac and Jacob: all (three) guided: and before him, We guided Noah, and among his progeny, David, Solomon, Job, Joseph, Moses, and Aaron: thus do We reward those who do good...
...These were the men to whom We gave the Book, and authority, and prophethood: if these (their descendants) reject them, Behold! We shall entrust their charge to a new people who reject them not.
Thus in light of the Qur’ān the successorship of the prophets in relation to mulk (leadership), ḥukm (rule), ḥikma (wisdom), kitāb (the book) and Imamate (a divine institution in relation to leadership)
is something that belongs to the descendants and close family of the prophets.
In Madelungs judgement the Prophet Muḥammad could not have considered the continual leadership after him over the Muslim community regarding his succession in any other way than reflecting in the light of the Qur’ān inasmuch as following the example of succession of the previous prophets.
However, in Watt’s opinion in that the most obvious choice in
successorship after the Prophet was Abū Bakr as he was the Prophet’s trusted counsellor and a leading deputy and personality, while also being one of the most significant converts in the early days of Islam.
The contested succession to Muḥammad is clearly the key question in the Shīʿi school of thought and the principal factor separating the Shīʿa from the Sunnī majority.
These nascent trends and issues after the Prophets demise would clearly be seen to have implications and an impact upon the life of ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn during his life. The issue of succession is not as simple as to who the leader of the new Muslim community would be and the question is not only who the successor of Muḥammad was but also the nature of the role of this successor, for it is on both these points that both of these schools of thought have differing views.
However it is not the aim nor the place of this study to evaluate the details of the succession to Muḥammad or to analyse the differing views of the Sunnī and Shīʿa as that would digress from the aim; which is to provide a closer insight into the circumstances and the milieu of ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn and the era preceding him. Thus only significant and major circumstances have been taken into account in order to provide and arrive at a fuller picture of his persona and position.
1.1 Background
It is commonly believed by Muslims that Prophet Muḥammad’s lineage can be traced back to the patriarch Abraham. Thus, for the Shīʿa, the lineage of ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn is also linked to Abraham through his father Ḥusayn b. ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib, his grandmother Fāṭima bint Muḥammad, grandfather ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib and great grandfather Prophet Muḥammad b. ʿAbdullāh b. ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib. Shīʿa theologians uphold that ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn merits a privileged status since his ancestor Abraham, being venerated by Christians, Jews and Muslims alike, holds an esteemed position in the monotheistic faith systems. Moreover the Qur’ān explicitly indicates that Muḥammad, his great grandfather, followed the way and creed of Abraham.
Furthermore the Prophet also revived aspects of Abraham’s life which has significantly influenced the faith and conduct of Muslims.
Thus, for Shīʿa theologians, ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn’s status is not based on a mere genealogical link with Abraham but also on a spiritual connection through Prophets Ishmael, Ishaq, and their successors. The narrative of God’s commandment upon Abraham to sacrifice his son holds an important position in Islam. The Qur’ān describes the commandment as a divine test from God upon Abraham and how God averted the actual slaughter at the final moment and had a sacrificial animal replace his son.
According to Shīʿa exegesis, the Qur’ān clearly states that the actual sacrifice which was merely postponed in order to be replaced by a far greater sacrifice from among Abraham’s descendants;
So when they had both submitted their wills (to Allāh), and he had laid him prostrate on his forehead (for sacrifice), We called out to him "O Abraham! Thou hast already fulfilled the vision!" - thus indeed do We reward those who do right. For this was obviously a trial- And We
ransomed him with a momentous sacrifice: And We left (this blessing) for him among generations (to come) in later times:
The last part of the above verse is thus interpreted as referring to the sacrifice and massacre of Ḥusayn, his family and companions at Karbalā, -where Zayn al-ʿĀbidin was also present- as a fulfilment of God’s promise to carry out the sacrifice from among generations (to come) in later times.
This is succinctly captured by ʿAllāma Muḥammad Iqbāl, also known as Iqbāl-e-Lahorī where he says:
Ismail was the beginning, Ḥusayn was the ultimate
Although this is by no means an agreed interpretation among all scholars of Qur’ānic exegesis, it has been influential among devout Shīʿa scholars and followers.
Alongside the Prophet, being his great grandfather, the other towering personality in Islam was the grandfather to be of ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn, namely ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib who was born on the 13th Rajab 24. It is widely reported among both the Sunnī and Shīʿa, the Shīʿa popularly accepting that he was born in the Kaʿba in Mecca, an incident that had been never been reported to have taken place previously or after.
It would not be difficult to imagine what commotion the news of this birth would have caused as it would have spread around Mecca and further onwards by people coming for pilgrimage as they returned back. After some years Muḥammad would follow the example of his uncle Abū Ṭālib when he took the young ʿAlī under his guardianship and care.
After the death of his protector, carer and uncle Abū Ṭālib and his wife Khadīja, who had been a great support for him, the persecutions against Muḥammad increased in number and intensity. This eventually led to the hijra, Muḥammad’s migration from Mecca to Medina in the year 622.
The Quraysh, receiving information of this sent an armed troop who surrounded Muḥammad’s house with intent to kill him before his imminent departure. However to their surprise they found that Muḥammad had managed to leave and instead found ʿAlī in his place inside his bed.
Shīʿa commentators also interpret in their exegesis that the following verse refers to this particular incident, and according to them together with many other verses and prophetic traditions further distinguishing the position of ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib.
And there is the kind of man who gives (sells) himself to earn the pleasure of Allāh. And Allāh is full of kindness to (His) devotees.
In the year 623
the grandmother to be of ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn, Fāṭima, whom Muḥammad dearly loved and considered as his own flesh and blood, being his only surviving child, was married to ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib after many suitors had been refused.
From such distinguished and venerated personalities were born ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn’s father Ḥusayn b. ʿAlī, his uncle Ḥasan b. ʿAlī, (more known as Imam Ḥusayn and Imam Ḥasan) and aunts Zaynab and Kulthūm bint ʿAlī, the latter two who would also be with him through the massacre and ordeal at Karbalā.
Historical sources point out that immediately following the Prophet’s death in Medina (11/632) there was a dispute regarding his succession and an ad hoc assembly by the notables and leading figures in Islam met at th
saqīfa (assembly hall) in Medina to settle on the essential question of leadership.
However the election that ended in favour of ʿAbdullah b. ʿUthmān (d. 13/634), better known by his kunya or agnomen, as Abū Bakr was not as simple as is generally believed. A conspicuous absentee during this election was ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib, ʿAlī b.al-Ḥusayn’s grandfather, the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law, as he had remained at the Prophet's deathbed and occupied with the funeral services. Several sources suggest the existence of at least a few people at this early meeting at the saqīfa who felt that ʿAlī had a valid claim to the succession who considered that in the view of a number of statements made by Muḥammad in his lifetime, ʿAlī should have occupied the leading position – not only as the temporal head (caliph) but also as the spiritual head (Imam). They objected giving the bayʿa (allegiance) to Abū Bakr stating they would not give it to anyone but ʿAlī, although Abū Bakr was considered a prominent companion of Muḥammad during his lifetime and subsequently became the first Muslim to rule after him. The followers of ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib however believed he violated Muḥammad's direct orders and effectively a coup d’état was orchestrated.
What is significant from the point of view of this study and historically are reports which maintain such claims and sentiments about ʿAlī and his family and which are contained in the earliest Islamic writings.
Some accounts uphold that the dissent raised in favour of ʿAlī did not quiet down after the decision was made in favour of Abū Bakr at the saqīfa.
These sentiments survived in varying degrees during the reign of the two following Caliphs, ʿUmar b. al-Khattāb (d. 644) andʿUthmān b. al-Affān (d.656) which in the future would have a significant impact upon the life of Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn.
It was during the last years of the reign of ʿUthmān b. ʿAffān (d. 656) that the social and political unrest began leading to his assassination, after which the Muslims rallied around the grandfather of Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn, ʿAlī .b Abī Ṭālib to take up the office of the Caliphate. ʿAlī reluctantly accepted, as he describes the situation in his famous Khutba Shiqshiqiyya.
ʿAlī’s rule lasted between the years 656-661, this was one of the more chaotic periods in Muslim history, and also coincided with the First Fitna during which a schism took place which led to the first civil war in Muslim history, leading to ʿAlī’s fatal wounding while leading prayers in the mosque of Kūfa, ending in his death (40/661).
The Kūfans then pledged allegiance to ʿAlī’s son Ḥasan b. ʿAlī, being Zayn al-ʿĀbidīns uncle, who ruled for a short period. During this time, Muʿāwiya b. Abū Sufyān held command of the largest force in the Muslim Empire, and had declared himself caliph, despite ʿAlī’s explicit instructions and designation - naṣṣ, of Ḥasan and that only the Ahl al-Bayt of Muḥammad were to reign the caliphate
, and marched his army into Iraq, the seat of Ḥasan's caliphate. War followed during which Muʿāwiya gradually subverted the generals and commanders of Ḥasan's army with large sums of money deceiving promises and threats until the army rebelled against him. Finally, Ḥasan was forced to make peace and to yield the caliphate to Muʿāwiya.
These events during this continued tumultuous period would ultimately lead to the massacre at Karbalā where most part of the males in ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn’s family were killed along with their few companions and where he remained as one of the only male survivors.
The massacre at Karbalā and the events that took place there would form to greatly impact upon the life and persona of ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn. In the next chapter we will closer examine his personal biography, the person, and the mindset, providing us with a window to the author and through him to the text.
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Author: Mahmood G. Dhalla
