A Compilation of Islamic Philosophy and Theology [Edited]

A Compilation of Islamic

Philosophy and Theology [Edited]

Compiled: by Aliyu Yunus Sakande

Table of Contents

Preface 4

Chapter One: What is Philosophy?. 6

The absolute existent and its laws 6

The Definition of Philosophy. 7

Questions 8

Notes 9

Chapter Two: Research Methodology in Philosophy 10

A Priori and Posterior Propositions 10

The first Point 10

The Second Point 11

Rational and Empirical Forms of Knowledge 11

Philosophy is Rational Knowledge 11

Example: The law of Causality is not empirical 11

Demonstration. 13

Questions 14

Notes 15

Chapter Three: The Relation between Science and Philosophy 16

The impact of science on Philosophy. 16

Philosophy after Science 16

The Scientific Theory raises a Philosophical Question. 16

The Scientific Theory as a step to Philosophical Demonstration. 17

The Scientific Theory determines the Extensions of the Philosophical Theory 17

Philosophy before Science 17

The Impact of Philosophy on Science 18

The Dependence of Science on Philosophy in Proving a Subject 18

Dependence of Science on Philosophy in Ensuring the Universal and Necessity of its Laws 19

Dependence of Science on Other Philosophical Presuppositions 22

The Priority of Philosophy over Science 23

Chapter Four: Is Learning Philosophy Necessary? 25

Necessity and its Criterion. 25

The uses of Philosophy and their evolution. 26

1- Satisfying the Sense of Curiosity. 26

2- Removing Double Ignorance 27

3- The Indispensable Foundation of Life. 27

Defining the Border between Sense and Reason. 28

1- A Holistic Outlook. 29

2- A Profound Outlook. 29

Providing The Presuppositions of the other fields of Study. 30

Providing The Fundamental Principle of Systems and Movement 31

Laying the Foundation of Worldviews 32

Questions 34

Chapter Five: Necessity, Impossibility, and Possibility 35

Necessity. 35

Necessity and impossibility. 35

Impossibility by essence and impossibility by other 36

Necessity by essence and necessity byother 37

Possibility by essence 38

Compatibly of possibility by essence with necessity or impossibility by other 39

Question. 40

Notes For further explanation. 41

Chapter Six: Ashariyya and Mu‘tazila 42

1. Historical Survey. 42

2. Cosmology. 43

3. The Five Principles 44

4. The Unity of God. 44

5. Divine Justice and Human Destiny. 46

Chapter Six: Ibn Sina. 48

Life and Works 48

Division of sciences 49

Logic 50

Physics 52

Metaphysics 55

Notes 59

Chapter Seven: Mulla Sadra: His Teachings 61

Mulla Sadra and earlier Islamic Philosophy. 61

The synthesis of previous schools of thought and modes of knowing. 62

The study of being. 63

Trans-substantial motion and creation of the world. 65

The union of the intelligent and the intelligible 67

The imaginal world and the archetypes 68

Eschatology and resurrection. 69

Some other principles of Sadrian teachings 71

Mulla Sadra’s Qur’anic commentaries 72

The influence of Mulla Sadra 73

Chapter Eight: Al-Kindi 75

Notes 83

Bibliography. 85

Chapter Nine: Al-Farabi 88

Life and works 88

Logic, phIilosophy of language and epistemology. 89

Psychology and philosphy of mind. 91

Metaphysics 95

Practical philosophy. 96

Al-Farabi’s subsequent influence 99

Notes 100

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 102

Index of term. 103

Preface

Although most of the educated people usually have no exact definition of many of the science, except for philosophy, they are well acquainted with them. For example, psychology or biology are, but know nothing about philosophy. Some think that philosophy is a set of pompous, fallacious and meaningless words that can never be fully understood. Others hold that ‘’ philosophy is a matter of fabrication; it depends on personal taste and interest and has no standard or criterion. Therefore, with no Philosophical background, they grant themselves the right to express their views and on listening to a philosophical discussion, given their opinion, or without studying or deeply understanding an argument, reject it. When they, cannot prove their points or on meeting some objection, they say ‘’the views of every person should be respected!

What is about philosophy that despite their ignorance of the subject most people claim to know it? What is the difference between philosophy and science? Why is it that the people do not have the same attitude toward thesciences? Why don’t the same persons express their opinions onmathematics, physics and chemistry?

This may have different reasons. One reason is that many science have their own particular terminology in which they do not use common conventional words, unlike philosophy, which use such commonly used words as ‘’ existence’’ ‘’ non - existence ‘’ ‘’cause’’ ‘’effect’’ ‘’possibility’’ ‘’necessity’’ ‘’potential’’ ‘’actual’’ ‘’originated’’ ‘’ per - eternal‘’ ‘’prior’’ ‘’ posterior’’ ‘’ the knower’’ and ‘’the know’’ Another reason is that to show their technical terms some of these science use special signs and to demonstrate their laws they use formulas, while this is not the case in philosophy.

Finally, one of the main reasons is that despite their ignorance of philosophy people are involved in a good number of philosophical questions. Most people, educated or uneducated, do not have even a general idea what philosophy is, what it investigates, its status among the various branch of the humanities, or even its use.

In shorts there are very few people who have the least knowledge of philosophy, and naturally every person fancies himself a friend of philosophy. He mistakenly imagines a formal science and thinks that this is philosophy, once honoured as the highest branch of knowledge. Nevertheless, as shall be described later, some of the questions of philosophy are commonly dealt with.

They are faced by all people and demand their response, and every person, educated or uneducated, invariably has to give a response, correct or incorrect, to them. However, most people do not know that these questions are philosophical.

Therefore, before we embark upon our discussion it is appropriate to introduce philosophy in following terms.

1- What is philosophy, what is the subject of study and what is its definition?

2- What is the research methodology followed in philosophy? Is it sensible and empirical or intellectual? Why is such approach followed?

3- What is the relationship between science and philosophy? In other words, what is the status of philosophy among the different fields of knowledge?

4- Why should we should philosophy?

5- In this section and in the following four chapters we will discuss the above questions.

Chapter One: What is Philosophy?

This chapter tries to provide a definition of philosophy. Real universal sciences are often defined by their subjects. Thus, in order to define philosophy, we have to know its subject and for that purpose we have to know what the subject of science in general is. In treating the subject of science, we start our discussion by comparing philosophy with other real universal science considering the variety of questions they discuss(the scope of their realm).

The scope of philosophy To understand the range of philosophy, it is better to consider the following philosophical question:

Is there a reality outside the mind? If there is, is it a knowable reality? I f so, what, essentially, is knowledge?

Is there a substance called a ‘corporeal body ‘or there are only corporeal accidents, such a colour, shape, heat and so on?

If there is such a substance, is it compound or simple ?if it is compound , what is its simplest part?

Do accidents have any existence other than the substance they characterize?

Does God, that is a being who is the cause of all things but needless of any cause, exist?

Doe God have attributes? if so , in what way do these attributes exist? Are they identical with existence of God or different from it ? Are they limited or unlimited?

Does spirit exist? If so, is it material or immaterial? What about angles?

Is there life after death?

What is movement and where does it occur? Does it occur only in the attribute and accidents possessed by bodies or it takes place in the depth of their existence as well? Do time and space exist? If so, what is their reality?

Does the world have a temporal beginning and ending?

Does it have any spatially?

Does an existent become non-existent or vice versa? Once an existent become nonexistent is it possible to bring it back into existence.

These are a few of the issue discussed in philosophy. But a careful consideration of even these few questions will show how extensive the realm of philosophy is. It discusses both the mind and the external world. Its investigations range from the simplest parts of the body to spirit, angels and god. It studies the accidents and the appearance and also the essence and the depth of things. It concerns itself with all that exists in the world and in the hereafter, from time without beginning to eternity without end. Therefore, in contrast to other fields of learning, the philosophical search is not limited to a certain pare of the universe. Why is that so? The answer should be looked for in the subject of science and philosophy. In general, each real science has certain subject, which determines the range of its issues. The subject of each of the sciences encompasses only a certain part of the universe, but the subject of philosophy is general and inclusive.

The absolute existent and its laws

As it has been mentioned above, the laws of all science deal with the special existent and the one condition for the applicability of these laws to an existent is that the existent should have a special quiddity. Now, are there any laws whose application to an existent is not conditional by the special quiddity of that existent, so that its mere; existence ‘’ would suffice and the presence or absence of a special quiddity would be irrelevant? In other words, are there any laws that are laws of ‘’ being’’ rather than law of ‘’ being with a special essence’’, laws of the absolute existent than those of an existent qua its having a special quiddity, and in philosophical term, law of “being qua being”? The answer is yes.

Philosophical laws are indeed of this nature. For example, the law of causality (every essentially possible existent needs a cause) which is a philosophical law, includes every possible existent, whether that existent has or does not have a quiddity is a man, a horse, a tree, gold, or an angel.

The subject Of Philosophy To Summarize, the laws of sciences are the laws of the special existent and apply to an existent only qua its possessing an essential determination; the laws of philosophy, however, are the laws of the absolute existent and do not require that it should possess a particular quiddity as a condition of their application. We may conclude that the subject of all other sciences is the special existent, that is, an existent qua its special essential determination. All other science study existents once their quiddities are determination. In other words, the subject of all other science is quiddity while that of philosophy is existence or being.

The Definition of Philosophy

Keeping in mind its subject, we can define philosophy as follows: Philosophy is that field of knowledge in which characteristic of the absolute existent are discussed. It is that field of knowledge in which qualities of ‘’ being’’ are studied, and as is commonly said, it is that knowledge in which the states of an existent qua existent are discussed.

Questions

1- Besides philosophy is there any other science that may include all things within its realm? Why?

2- What is the subject of science and what role does it have in science?

3- What is the meaning of terms ‘’ special existent ‘’ and ‘’ absolute existent?’’

4- What is the criterion by which we can distinguish between philosophies?

5- What is the definition of philosophy?

6- What is the definition of philosophy?

7- Why the absolute existent is more general than the special existent and is there anything more general that the solute existent? Why?

8- Which of the following proposition are philosophical and why Every existent is either black or not black Every existent is either a cause or effects Every moving object needs a moving force The cause of the movement of many bodies is the gravity that exists between them. If some of the elements that contribute to the existence of water did not exist, water would not exist.

9- Consider the law ‘’pressure does not change the volume of water Say whether the subject of this law is the special existence and why? Rewrite it in a more form by applying the qualifiers ‘’qua’' to which science does it belong?

Notes

The two qualifies ‘universal ‘and ‘real’ are used in order to exclude fields of leaning that deal with particular facts, such as history and geography and conventional and arbitrary fields of scholarship, Such as literature and jurisprudence from our discussion.

For the sake of clarity in this chapter the term ‘’ science ‘’ has been used in contrast to ‘’ philosophy’’, and the term ‘’knowledge’’ and ‘’ learning’’ have been used in a sense more general than the other two. Therefore, by science here we mean all science other than philosophy.

Insteadof the familiar term ‘’the subject of knowledge or learning’’ so that it may include philosophy as well.

For further explanation, see Mortada Mutahari, Majmauah Asar (collected worked) (Qom, Sadra Publication 1371) vol.6 pp. 469 - 473

Changing proposition 1 into proposition 2, which is more exact shows that intellectual the true subject of this law is heart and its metaphorical (unreal) subject is man. In philosophy in order to show this kind of truth and metaphor (unreality) we use the term ‘’ qua’’ which is used in proposition 4 and say ‘’man qua possessing heat is subject to the thermal exchange law. The meaning of this expression is that man’s possession of heat mediates so that man can be subject to such a law. In other words, instead of ruling that heat is subject to such a law, the intellect rules that man is subject to it is man who has heat. Therefore man’s possession of heat has been a medium so that the intellect can metaphorically attribute the law related to heat to man. Technically, in such cases philosophers say that heat acts as ‘’a medium in the occurrence ‘’ or that it is ‘’a qualifying aspect ‘’ so that the intellect could rule that man is subject to the thermal exchange law. In philosophy, distinguishing the true subject of one stipulation from its metaphorical subject and determining the medium in the occurrence are very important and the qualifier ‘’qua’’ is often used for this purpose. For further treatment of this topic see Collected Works, vol. 5.n.pp.496 and 498

See Avicenna, Al-Shifa,Al-llahiyyat (Theology) ,(Qom, the library of Ayatullah al- Maraashi al-Najafi, 1404 AH) pp. 10-12.See also collected Works, Vol.5,p. 130 and also p.131

See collected Works, vol.5. 130 and 131.

See also inid. Vol 6, pp. 59(No.2) - 64.

Chapter Two: Research Methodology in Philosophy

The aim of this chapter is to define research methodology in philosophy. For this purpose, we should first of all understand what is meant by ‘’ research methodology’’ in any particular field of study. Since research methodology in a field of knowledge is nothing other than the method of determine the truth or falsity of its constituent propositions and because the truth or falsity of the propositions of a real universal field of knowledge can only be determined by either a rational or an empirical method, we must begin by explaining this last point, according to which propositions are divided into a priori and a posterior.

Next, we shall divide different types of knowledge into rational and empirical and finally try to prove that philosophy is a form of rational knowledge.

A Priori and Posterior Propositions

Consider the geometrical proposition ‘’ the sum of the internal angles of a triangle is 180 degrees’’ and the physical proposition ‘’ all metals are expanded by heat.’’ Both of which are correct and compare them with each other. It is clear that if in the course of experience we came across a triangle whose qualities are different from those stated in former proposition, we would not judge that proposition to be false and invalid; however, if we found a kind of metal which did not have the quality mentioned in the physical proposition we would consider that proposition false and they deny its universality. What is the reason for this difference? The reason lies in the methods used to prove the truth or validity of these two propositions. The truth of the first proposition is proved by a rational method while that of the second is proved by an empirical one. By a rational method we mean a form of demonstration that ultimately rests on primary, self-evident propositions. Since understanding the truth of primary, self -evident propositions and the law of reference in logic ,on which this types of demonstration is based , are both independent from experience and the intellect understanding the truth prior to experience and independent of experience and does not need its help.

The truth of the second proposition, however can only be understood following experience and though its assistance. The some can also be said of false propositions in that the fallacy of some of them can be understood independent of experience while only the help of experience can ascertain that of others. In technical terms, proposition of the second kind are called a posterior.

Therefore a prior proposition is one whose truth or falsity can only be determined by an empirical method. It is important at this junction to consider the following point.

The first Point

The concepts employed in a proposition may have been acquired through the sense but it may still be a priori if we can determine its truth or falsity by a rational method and independent of the senses, like many geometrical propositions.

Which though contain many sensible concepts, such as dot?Line surface, circle, triangle etc. are all a priori since we can determine their truth or falsity by the rational method and without the help of the sense. In general the way parts of a proposition or the whole proposition have entered the mind, whether it is through dreams, inspiration etc. Does not make a proposition a priori or a posterior. Whether a proposition a is a posterior depends only on the way we determine its truth or falsity.

The Second Point

Aposterior proposition is exceptive; that is, observed counter - example can only question it universality while retains its validity or other cases. In other words, though that proposition is false in its universality, in its more particular form it may be true. Consequently, another universal proposition but with a particular subject replaces the invalidated universal proposition. A prior proposition, however is non-exceptive, that is a rational counter example will indicate the total invalidity of the proposition and we cannot claim its truth in any other case. For example suppose a true geometrical proof demonstrates that the total sum of the angles of an equilateral triangle is not 180 degree.

This counter example will show that triangle is 180 degree is not valid and the invalidity of that cannot rationally judge that the total sum of the angle of any triangle is 180 degree.

Rational and Empirical Forms of Knowledge

Rational knowledge is that knowledge whose proposition are a priori while empirical knowledge is that knowledge whose proposition are a posterior In other words rational knowledge is the form of knowledge whose proposition can be proved true or false by a rational method while empirical knowledge is one whose propositions can be proved true or false only by an empirical method.

Keeping in mind that by ‘’research methodology’’ in one kind of knowledge we mean that method which determine the truth or falsity of its proposition we can say. Rational knowledge is the kind knowledge is one whose research methodology is empirical. From now on we shall use the word ‘’ knowledge ‘’ to refer to all forms of knowledge and science and the word ‘’science ‘’ in accordance with the current usage of the term to indicate empirical knowledge alone.

Philosophy is Rational Knowledge

Initially, using the reduction ad absurdum argument, we shall prove the validity of this claim in respect to a single philosophical proposition, such as the principle of causality as an example. Then in 3.2 we will prove its validity concerning all philosophical propositions.

Example: The law of Causality is not empirical

Let consider the principle of causality in it conventional sense: Every phenomenon, namely everything crated in time (temporal) needs a cause. Suppose this is and a posterior proposition and its truth or falsity can be demonstrated by experience. We will try to show that, firstly this cannot be done without employing a prior proposition and secondly, it will lead to a vicious circle.

According to the practice followed by philosopher of science in falsifiability or verifiability of empirical proposition , the above proposition can be a posterior if is truth can be demonstrated by experience (according to the principle of verifiability in the empirical science ) or its falsity could be justified experimentally (according to the principle of falsifiability in empirical science ). In other words either its truth should be proved by experience and inductive generalization or certain empirical states or inductive imagined. Which if realized would demonstrate the inaccuracy of that proposition. To be more precise either we have to show phenomena and secondly need a cause and then generalize this finding to include all phenomenon needs a cause or we must imagine certain states and conditions in which we could prove by experience that is certain thing is first of all a phenomenon and secondly does not need a cause is falsifiable and a posterior, therefore in both approaches we must initially show by experience that certain thing or things are phenomena. However, we can easily prove that, firstly, this cannot be done through experience alone and without employing a prior proposition and secondly, that it entails a vicious circle.

To explain, we should say that being a phenomenon means being created in time. This in turn means that the thing in question must be initially non-existent and then later on become existent while we con not perceive the existence to nonexistence of things through the sense (aided or unaided ) This is so since perception require two preconditions: firstly, the object in question must leave a trace of its effect on the perceiving organ - of course this effects is going to be corporeal and must pass though different stages until it reaches the brain - and secondly the spirit must perceive this effects. Therefore only such things can be sensible that effect the cells of one of the sense organ In the light of this if we look closely into our perceived we will see that the only things that can be perceived directly by the sense are colour different kinds of noises, taste, smells, cold and heat, smoothness and roughness, hardness and softness, dryness and wetness .Lightness and heaviness, Moreover there are other things which are also perceived through the sense, but not the same manner as the qualities just referred to, for these do not directly affect the sense organ rather assisted by a form of intellectual analogy, are perceived along with those things which directly affect the sense organs,Wecall this kind of perceived ‘’ indirect sense perception.’

Now the things that are perceived indirectly by the sense are different kind of shaped. number, the position which things have in relation to each other, in terms of being remote ,close ,joined or separated from each other being above below to the left or to the right of each other and so on. Some philosophers also hold that temporal succession of thing and their movement can only be perceived indirectly by the sense.

Therefore certain attributes such as necessity, possibility, impossibility, causality or influence, being an effect or affectability, condition,conditioned, potentially, actuality, dependence, independenc , self- sufficiency, contrary , contradiction, temporality or being a phenomenon, pre-eternity, substantiality, accidentally, different kind of substance existence and non - existence can neither directly nor way left to perceive the temporality of a thing and that is form the fact that we do not perceive it at first and then come to perceive it. For example, we do not initially perceive a light and then at a certain moment we begin to see it. From this we conclude that it was non-existent at the beginning and then it became existent; in other words, it is created in time and is therefore a phenomenon.

However,in order to conclude, form not perceiving a thing for example not seeing it, its non-existence and from perceiving it, for example seeing it, its existence, we have to use other intermediary propositions. 1 Every visible thing, which is not seen in a place, is non-existent in that place and 2. Everything seen in place is existent in that place. But these propositions, irrespective of their truth or falsity are firstly a prior and secondly if we assume their truth and try to prove their validity can be proved only through the laws of causality. That isevery principle in other in order words that we are trying to prove. This, needless to say is a vicious circle and impossible to attain.

Demonstration

As was stated in the definition of philosophy, philosophical propositions explain the characteristics and properties of existence and, rarely, of non-existence and its properties. It was also explained in 3.1 that neither existence, nor nonexistence, nor any of their characteristics, such as necessity, possibility, impossibility, casualty, being an effect, etc., could be experienced or perceived through the senses. Naturally, then, the relationship between existence and it characteristics or non-existence and its properties, which is the subject of philosophical propositions, cannot be understood through the senses or through experience. Therefore, these relationships can be understood only by reason and on the basis of primary selfevident propositions; in other words, it is only by the rational method that we can determine the truth or falsity of philosophical propositions

Questions

1- What do we mean by research methodology?

2- Define a priori and a posterior proposition.

3- What is the significance of the fact that posterior propositions are exceptive and a priori propositions are nonexceptive?

4- Why is it that a priori propositions do not allow exceptions?

5- Does every a priori proposition necessarily consist of intangible conceptions? Why?

6- Can we change particular or existential (at least some of them) into universal propositions? If the answer is affirmative explain how? Furthermore, give at least two examples showing such change.

7- Which of the following concepts derive directly or indirectly from sense organs? Why? Movement, possibility, impossibility, body, shape, necessity, existence, nonexistence, water, colour

8- Which of the following propositions are a priori and which are a posterior? Why?

9- Every moving object needs a moving force.

10- Every corporeal body is either black or not black.

11- All acids are sweet in taste.

12- No physical body has a particular colour in itself. It is our eyes that see things in different colours.

13- As long as an observer is looking at an object that object exists. When he stops looking at it, it ceases to exist.

14- Suppose you are given a sheet of paper on which a geometrical shape is printed and three specific lines in the drawing have been highlighted. You are asked to prove that the three highlighted lines in that drawing (and not in general way concerning every drawing with the same characteristics) are equal. Is it possible to prove this point simply by an exact ruler without employing any a priori propositions? Why?

15- Suppose in response to your friend’s invitation you have decided to his house, and you go there. Keeping this supposition in mind, answer the following questions:

1- What a priori propositions must you assume to be true so that your action - your claim to have made a decision to go to your friend’s house and having carried out that decision - appears as reasonable? Mention at least five propositions.

2- Why assuming that these propositions are true is necessary for the rationality of that action?

3- To which types of knowledge does each of these propositions belong?

Notes

1- For further explanation, see Majmouah Asar (Collected Works), vol. 6, ‘The Rational Theory’, pp. 332-334.

2- For further illustration, see C.G. Jung, The Fundamental Questions of Philosophy, chapter 2.

3- For further information on Verifiability and Falsifiability, see Allen F. Chalmers, The Nature of Science, chapters 1-6; the Open University Press, 1982.

4- See Avicenna, Al-Shifa, Al-Tabiyat (Natural Philosophy) (Qum, Library of Ayatullah al-Maraashi al-Najafi, 1404 AH). 3 vols, vol. 2, p. 53.

5- Ibid. Pp. 139-141. See also Sadr al-Mutaliheen, Al-Hikma al-Mutaliyah (Transcendental Philosophy) (Beirut: Dar Ihya al-Turath al-Arabiyyah, 1981), 3rd Editon, 9 vols., vol. 8, section 4, chapter 12, pp. 201-204.

6. For further illustration see Collected work vol 6, ‘’ the way of Acquiring Knowledge.’’ pp 245 - 254 See also indi vol 5 The Secondary Intelligible, pp 266 - 292 and also ibidi vol. 10, Epistemo; ogy pp.249 - 305

7- For further illustration see Collected Works vol. The Empirical Theory, pp

8- 334 - 347

9- For another explanation ob the vicious circle see Collected Work Vol 6, pp 683- 684

10- For further explanation see collected work vol 6 pp 478 - 480.

Chapter 15: Al-Muhaddathah

First of all, it should be explained that angels speak, appear, and can be heard by others than prophets.

It is written in the Holy Qur’an:

1. "Behold! the angels said: 'O Mary! God hath chosen thee and purified thee-chosen thee above the women of all nations. O Mary! Worship thy Lord devoutly: prostrate thyself, and bow down (in prayer) with those who bow down." (3: 42-43)

This verse clearly states that angels spoke to Mary (Maryam, mother of Prophet Isa (Jesus) (as)) by praising her, and conveyed to her Allah's commands. It is evident that she heard their speech, and realized their intention, for if not, it would be useless to speak to her.1

It is even mentioned that the Arch-angel Gabriel, himself, spoke to her.

2. "Relate in the Book (the story of) Mary (as), when she withdrew from her family to a place in the East. She placed a screen (to screen herself) from them; then We sent to her Our angel, and he appeared before her as a man in all respects. She said: 'I seek refuge from thee to (God) Most Gracious; (come not near) if thou dost fear God.' He said: 'Nay, I am only a messenger from thy Lord, (to announce) to thee the gift of a holy son.' She said: 'How shall I have a son, seeing that no man has touched me, and I am not unchaste?'

He said: 'So (it will be): Thy Lord said,

"That is Easy for Me: and (We wish) to appoint him as a Sign unto men and a Mercy from Us'; it is a matter (so) decreed.” (19: 16-21)

The interpreters of the Holy Qur’an have unanimously agreed that the angel mentioned in the second verse was Gabriel. He "appeared before her as a man in all respects". Then a dialogue was held between the two of them.

3.'And his wife was standing (there), and she laughed; but We gave her glad tidings of Isaac, and after him, of Jacob. She said: Alas for me! Shall I bear a child, seeing I am an old woman, and my husband here is an old man? That would indeed be a wonderful thing!' They said: 'Dost thou wonder at God's decree? The grace of God, and His blessings on you, O ye people of the house! For He is indeed worthy of all praise, full of all glory!" (11: 71-73)

These verses speak of the angels visit to Ibrahim (as), bringing him the good news of a son. Ibrahim's (as) wife, Sara, who was serving the guests thinking that were men, spoke to the angels and they replied to her. This matter is clear from the verses.

4. "So, We sent this inspiration (revelation) to the mother of Moses: 'Suckle (thy child), but when thou hast fears about him, cast him into the river. " (28: 7)

Some interpreters claim that Musa's (as) mother was inspired to act in such a manner; while others say that she was spoken to (by the angels) in order to follow the Divine Commands.

Al-Manawi said in Al-Jame'Al-Saghir v. 2, p. 270, on the authority of Qurtubi:

"(Muhaddathoon) means those who are inspired, or, whose expectations are accurate, and directed by Divine power."

It can also mean those who utter true, and accurate words, those who are spoken to by angels, or those whose opinions and viewpoints always conform to righteousness as if they were inspired by the Kingdom of Heaven. Hence, this position is a generous miracle bestowed upon a selected group of Allah's pious worshippers, and an exalted position granted to Allah's chosen ones.

Thereupon, it becomes readily easy to distinguish that Fatima az-Zahra (sa) was spoken to by angels. Because “the Mistress of all women”, and the daughter of the best of all Prophets and Messengers is not any less significant than Maryam Bint Imran (as), or, Sarah, Ibrahim's (as) wife, or, Musa's (as) mother. Of course, this shall not be misunderstood, for any of these ladies-including Lady Fatima az-Zahra (sa) were not a prophet.

Furthermore, Sheikh Saduq narrated in Ilal Ash Sharaea' that Zaid Ibn ‘Ali said:

"I heard Abu Abdullah (Imam Sadiq (as)) say:

"Fatima az-Zahra (sa) was called "Muhaddathah" because the angels descended from Heaven, and called her as they called Maryam Bint Imran and said: "O Fatima! Allah hath chosen thee above the women of all nations.""

It has been narrated in v. 10 of A-Bihar that Imam Sadiq (as) said to Abu Basir:

"... We also possess Fatima's book Mushaf, and had they known about the book of Fatima!!! It is three times the size of your Qur’an; and by Allah, it has not a letter of your Qur’an; rather it was dictated and revealed to her by Allah ...."2

This narration needs elaborate research and explanation, for the Imam (as) compared the size of Fatima's book to the size of the most familiar book to all Muslims-the Holy Qur’an. Thus, if the Qur’an was printed in average-sized letters on standard paper, and let us suppose that it would fill five hundreds of such pages; then Fatima's book would need fifteen hundred had it been printed according to the same standards. This is what the Imam (as) meant when he said: "It is three times the size of your Qur’an."

This, however, does not mean in any way that the Holy Qur’an is deficient, or, that Fatima's book out vies it, nor, does it mean that another divine book was revealed to her. In fact anyone who makes such a claim is either ignorant, or, an infidel.

The word "Mushaf' does not mean "Qur’an"; rather it means volume, book, or, a collection of articles in one notebook.

When a group of Imam Sadiq's (as) companions questioned him about Fatima's book, he was quiet for a long time then explained: "Surely you search for what you need and that you need naught".

Actually, Fatima lived seventy-five days after the Prophet's death; when she was intensely depressed, Gabriel would visit and condole her on the Prophet's death. He would cheer her up by mentioning the good situation her father was enjoying, and tell her what would come to pass after her death. Imam ‘Ali (as) wrote what Gabriel said, and this is Fatima's book.

In addition, Husayn Ibn Abu al-Ala reported that Imam Sadiq (as) said:

"...Fatima's book, I don't claim that it is Qur’an, rather it contains what makes people need us and makes us in need of no one. It even mentions (the legal punishment for) a lashing, half a lashing, one fourth of a lashing, and the indemnity for a scratch mark."3

There remains a need for an explanation of what is meant by "It was revealed to her."

This explanation can be derived from the Qur’anic verses that revelation is not confined to prophets; but rather Allah, the Exalted, reveals to some chosen people as mentioned in the following verses:

• "So Zakariya came out to his people from his chamber; told them by signs to celebrate God's praises in the morning, and in the evening." (19: 11)

• "So, He completed them as seven firmaments in two days, and He assigned to each Heaven its duty and command." (41: 12)

• 'And, behold! 1 inspired the Disciples to have faith in Me, and Mine Apostle." (5: 114)

• "Remember thy Lord inspired the angels (with the message): '1 am with you; give firmness to the Believers." (8: 12)

• "And, thy Lord taught the bee to build its cells in hills." (16: 68)

• "So, we sent this inspiration to the mother of Moses: 'Suckle (thy child)." (28: 7)

• "And, indeed We conferred a favor on thee another time (before)" (20: 38)

Moreover, these verses state that revelation is not confined to mankind, but it also includes other creatures such as: the Heavens, the Disciples, the angels, the bees, and Musa's (as) mother.

Therefore, there can be no doubt that Allah, the Exalted, sent revelations to “the Mistress of Women” and daughter of the Master of Prophets, as he revealed to Musa's (as) mother, or, Maryam Bint Imran (as).

In conclusion, Fatima’s (sa) book is enormous, and includes detailed information about the legal punishments, and the Islamic penal code, whether major, or, minor.

It was also declared that her book lists the names of kings who ruled, and will rule on Earth until the Day of Resurrection. All this was according to the will of Allah the Knowing, the Omniscient. The book also contains descriptions of all-important events that will take place throughout history.

Fatima's book was not a Qur’an, as it is clearly stated in the traditions of Ahlul-Bayt, in spite of the claims of the enemies of the Shiite who argue that the Shiites believe in another divine book called Fatima’s (sa) book, with the intention of undermining their authentic faith.

Notes

1. Majma' Al-Bayan.

2. Bihar: v.5.

3. Bihar: v.6.

Chapter 16: Az-Zahra

As it was reported in v. 10 of Bihar al-Anwar, Ibn Abbas narrated that Allah's Messenger said:

"Surely my daughter Fatima is: The Mistress of all women from the beginning to the end. She is part of me, and the light of my eyes, She is the f lower of my heart, and is my soul, (Fatima) is a human huri, who whenever she stands in prayers in the presence of Her Lord (Exalted is His Name), her light illuminates the skies for the angels, like stars shine to people on Earth."

This narration clarifies the reason for which Fatima az-Zahra (sa) was given the name Zahra. There are other narrations, which mention that she had a bright and splendid face.

Lady Fatima az-Zahra (sa) had other titles, and each one of them reflected a virtue of noble trait which she enjoyed. Among those titles were: Al-Batoul, Al-Adhra (The Virgin), and

Al-Hania (The Affectionate one to her children).

Fatima’s (sa) favorite title was "Umm Abiha" meaning her father's mother.

Chapter 17: Al-Batoul

Allah, the Exalted, created His creatures, and implemented in them certain laws, and habits. He also subjected these creatures to laws, and habits. For instance, a law that rules fire is an incendiary and spontaneous; while plants require certain spans of time, and specific environments to grow and produce; likewise, animals require specific conditions that vary according to their sizes, types and colours, to grow.

Generally speaking, humans are subjected to assigned universal laws and physiological, psychological and spiritual peculiarities; yet, certain people who have been chosen by Allah (SwT), and on account of His far-reaching wisdom, have been excluded from these laws. In other words, Allah (SwT) subjected special laws to the chosen ones. Fire, for example, turns everything in its way to ashes; yet Allah said to it:

"O fire! Be thou cool, and (a means of) safety for Ibrahim."

When Prophet Yunis (as) was "cast forth on the naked shore in a state of sickness," after the whale swallowed him, Allah caused a "spreading plant" to grow quickly, and cover Yunis's (as) sick body.

Procreation, too, cannot take place without impregnation, and the implementation of sperm in the woman's womb, wherein the sperm is made into a clot that grows to be a foetus, covered with bones, which becomes an unborn child. This process takes at least six to nine months; but his natural process that Allah implemented in mankind was invalidated in the case of Maryam (as) who gave birth to Prophet Isa (Jesus) (as) without any of these steps. It has been said that she carried him six to nine hours in her womb before giving birth to him under a palm tree in a secluded location.

Likewise, all miracles, which occurred through other prophets, took place in environments that did not conform to natural laws. The examples of such events are tremendous. The Holy Qur’an narrated many stories about prophets' and Imams' challenges to the laws of nature. Among these stories are Prophet Adam's (as) descension from Paradise to Earth, the gushing forth of the fountains of earth in the story of Prophet Noah (as), Sara's pregnancy with Prophet Ishaq (as) at an old age, the turning of Prophet Musa's (as) stick into a snake, healing the blind, and the lepers, and raising of the dead by Prophet Isa (as), and Ascension into the Heavens by Allah's last Apostle (as).

Now that the above is understood, the following conclusion can be derived:

Women's monthly menstruation, which starts at maturity, and continues until the fifties, or, sixties, is nothing but the discharge of spoiled blood, and tissues which were to hold the fetus had it been conceived.

Allah, the Almighty, says:

"They ask thee concerning women's menstruation. Say: They are a discomfort, and pollution."

This indicates that the discharged blood is a harmful substance, which would harm women if it stayed in their bodies. It is even noticeable that women's psychological and physiological states, including their facial appearance and everyday conduct change at this time of the month. By this, we conclude that the bleeding which results from monthly menstruation differs from the normal kind of bleeding, which any human being, including women, might suffer accidentally.

It is unquestionable that monthly menstruation causes women to feel nervous, shy, and dejected despite the fact that this occurrence is an involuntary natural course. Yet, women suffer this course, which is inevitable. For this reason, women are not obligated to perform prayers, or, fast during menstruation. They are also forbidden from staying in Mosques, or, to enter the Sacred Mosque in Mecca, and the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. In addition, reciting the chapters of Qalam, Najm, Alif Lam Mim Tanzil, and Ha Mim as ayahs (verses) of “Sajdah” (which require performance of obligatory prostration) are not to be read during women's monthly periods.

These laws, which have just been mentioned, are applicable during confinement in accouchement.

Nevertheless, Allah, The Exalted, relieved Fatima az-Zahra (sa) from such pollution, as He removed from her all abomination, and purified her into a total purification. This fact is authenticated by various traditions among which are the following:

1. Qanduzi reported in Yanabi' al-Mawaddah p.260. that the Prophet (S) said: "She was safeguarded from menstruation, and childbed (bleeding)."

2. Muhammad Salih al-Kashfi al-Hanafi reported in Al-Manaqib that the Prophet (S) said: "Fatima was called Al-Batoul because she was safeguarded and relieved from that which women encounter every month (menstruation)."

3. A1-Amr-Tasri narrates in Arjah al-Matalib that the Prophet (S) was asked about the meaning of Batoul-someone said to him: "Messenger of Allah, we have heard you say that Maryam is Batoul and Fatima, too, is Batoul!!"

The Prophet replied: "Batoul is she who never see blood, meaning that she never discharges menstrual blood; because menstruation is resented if it occurs in Prophet's daughters."

The above-mentioned narration was authenticated by Al-Hakim.

4. A1-Hafez Abu Bakr Ash-Shafe'i narrates in Tarikh Baghdad v.13, p.331, on the account of Ibn Abbass that the Prophet said: "My daughter is a human huri, she never menstruates, nor, does she encounter any menses."

Nisaee also narrates this tradition.

5. Ibn Asaker mentioned in At-Tarikh al-Kabir v.1, p.391, on the account of Anas Ibn Malik that Umm Salim said:

"Fatima (may Allah be pleased with her) has never menstruated, nor, discharged childbed blood."

6. Al-Hafez al-Suyuti said:

'Among Fatima's particularities is that she did not menstruate, and when she gave birth to a child, she would immediately become purified from childbed confinement so as not to miss her prayers."

7. Rafae mentioned in At-Tadween that Umm Salama said:

"Fatima never discharged blood during her childbed confinement, nor, does she menstruate."

8. Tabari narrates in Dhakhaer al-Uqbi that Asma Bint Umais said:

"When Fatima gave birth to Al-Hasan (as), she did not bleed; she also does not bleed during periods of menstruation. (When I informed the Prophet of this) he said: `Do you not know that my daughter is pure, and chaste; she does not discharge blood as a result of childbirth, or, menstruation."'

Safari narrates this tradition in Nuzhat al-Majalis p.227.

9. It was mentioned in v.10 of Al-Bihar that Abu Basir quoted Imam Sadiq (as) as saying:

'Allah, the Exalted, forbade ‘Ali (as) from marrying women while Fatima was still alive."

Abu Basir exclaimed: "Why was that?"

The Imam (as) replied: "Because she was pure and does not menstruate."

Sheikh Majlisi commented on this narration by the following:

"This narration means either. First: Because Fatima did not menstruate, ‘Ali (as) had no reason to marry another woman. So, Allah forbade him to marry other women in observance of her sanctity. Or, Second: Her eminence disallowed him from marrying another woman; where as this particularity of hers is part of this eminence."

Fatima's exaltation from encountering menstrual, or, accouchement blood, confirms to the verse of purification which has already been discussed.