Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

59. The Phonological Environment for Form VIII Verb

Thecharacteristic feature of Form VIII is the reflexive affix  / ـتـَ / which is inserted after the first radical of the root. That / ـتـَ / will create the environment for a phonological rule of assimilation that applies itself if the first radical is a dental stop or fricative. The result is that the inserted / ـتـَ / is assimilated. Involved here are the following consonants:

ت ث د ذ ز ص ض ط ظ

Compare the following examples:

(a) a fully pronounced  / ـتـَ /                                                     جَمَعَ     إجتَمَعَ

(b) a fully assimilated  / ـتـَ /                           زادَ - إزدادَ    ،  دَعا - إدَّعی

Luckily, Arabic does not have many verbs of this type. However, you need to remember the three following related phonological rules:

(1). After the emphatic consonants ص ض ط the inserted / ـتـَ / becomes emphaticط , as in صَدَمَ - إصطدَمَ

(2). After the fricatives ت ظ there is a complete assimilation and the resultant double consonant is written with Shadda, as in   ظَلـَمَ – إظـَّلـَمَ   

(3). If the first radical of the verb is( و ) as in  وَصَلَ , the( و ) will be completely assimilated by the inserted  / ـتـَ /, and thus the use of the Shadda would be required. Consider the following example:

 وَصَلَ – إتـَّصَلَ

60. Non-human Plurals

Non-human Plurals are treated as feminine singular in terms

of adjective, pronoun, and subject-verb agreement.

السيَّاراتُ جديدةٌ. هي جميلة ٌ أيضاً.

The cars are new. They are pretty, too.

61. Multiples of 10 do not show gender distinction. Consider the following sentence:

کتبتُ عشرينَ رسالة ً وقرأتُ عشرينَ کتاباً.

I wrote twenty letters and I read twenty books.

62. The Conjunction  لکنَّ

The Conjunction  لکنَّ is usually followed by a noun or a pronoun suffix in the accusative case. On the other hand, لکنْ tolerates the use of verbs after it. Both are used to make compound sentences and mean "but."

لا أحبُّ القهوةَ لکنْ أحِبُّ الحليبَ.

I don’t like coffee but I like milk.

البرنامجُ جميلٌ لکنـَّهُ طويلٌ.

The program is beautiful but it is long.

63. The Singular Subject and its mood markers

The Singular Subject and its mood markers for verbs in the present tense are prefixed and suffixed to the verb stem. This is necessary to demonstrate subject/verb agreement. These singular markers are:

أنا            أنتِ             أنتَ            هي            هو

Subject markersأ             تـَ ...ـيـ        تـَ               تـَ             تـَ             

Mood markers           -ُ            ـنَ              -ُ                -ُ            -ُ               

64. The Plural Subject and mood markers.

It was mentioned above that for verbs in the present tense subject and mood markers are prefixed and suffixed to the verb stem in order to demonstrate subject/verb agreement. The same is true with plural markers, which are:

   أنتـُم         هُنَّ          هُم  أنتـُنَّ نحنُ

Subject marker      نـَ            تـَ ..ـْنَ         تـَ ...و     يـَ ..ـنَ      يَـ  

Mood markers        ـنَ      none                  ـنَ  none             -ُ   

65. The Present Tense of the Arabic verb

The Present Tense of the Arabic verb requires that you prefix the subject marker and suffix the mood marker to the stem of the verb. However, this is not as easy as it sounds, especially for Form I. The vowels you need to add are going to be a little bit challenging. Note the following paradigm.

1.1. فـَعَلَ - يَفعَلُ             ذَهَبَ- يَذهَبُ

2.1. فـَعَلَ - يَفعِلُ             رَجَعَ - يَرجِعُ

3.1. فـَعَلَ - يَفعُلُ             کـَتـَبَ - يَکتـُبُ

4.1. فـَعِلَ - يَفعَلُ             شَرِبَ - يَشرَبُ

2. فـَعَّلَ - يُفـَعِّلَ               دَرَّسَ - يُدرِّسُ

3. فاعَلَ - يُفاعِلُ              شاهَدَ - يُشاهِدُ

4. أفعَلَ - يُفعِلُ                أقبَلَ - يُقبـِلَ

5. تـَفـَعَّلَ - يَتـَفـَعَّـلُ           تـَحَدَّثَ - يَتـَحَدَّثُ

6. تـَفاعَلَ - يَتـَفاعَلُ          تـَقابَلَ - يَتـَقابَلُ

7. إنفـَعَلَ - يَنفـَعِلُ            إنصَرَفَ - يَنصَرِفُ

8. إفتـَعَلَ- يَفتـَعِلُ             إعتـَمَدَ - يَعتـَمِدُ

9. إفعَلَّ - يَفعَلُّ                إحمَرَّ - يَحمَرُّ

10. إستـَفعَلَ - يَستـَفعِلُ      إستـَخدَمَ – يَستـَخدِمُ

66. The Moods. The Present tense verb in Arabic has three moods.

1. Indicative is the regular present tense verb.

تـَسکـُنُ أختي في هذهِ الشقـَّةِ.

               My sisterlives in this apartment.

2. Subjunctive is used when there is doubt, fear, hope, purpose, obligation, negated future, etc.

لنْ تـَسکـُنَ أختي في هذهِ الشقـَّةِ.

                  My sisterwill not live in this apartment.

3. Jussive is used in negating the past tense with the particleلمْ

لم تـَسکـُنْ أختي في هذهِ الشقـَّةِ.

My sisterdid not live in this apartment.

67. Vowels of the Present Tense Verb

There are three important vowels you need to take note of when you conjugate any Arabic verb from past tense to the present tense. These include:

1. The Subject marker vowel, which is the first vowel of the verb;

2. The Stem Vowel, which is the vowel that goes on the second radical/consonant of the root;

3. The Mood Marker Vowel, which is the last vowel of the verb.

The following is a chart of these various vowels for the ten forms of the Arabic verb system:

   Form Indicative Mood   Stem Subject

  I     Dhammaunpredictable            Fatha

IIDhammaKasraDhamma

IIIDhammaKasraDhamma

IVDhammaKasraDhamma

VDhammaFathaFatha

VIDhammaFathaFatha

VIIDhammaKasraFatha

VIIIDhammaKasraFatha

IXDhammaFathaFatha

XDhammaKasraFatha

68. حتـَّی 

حتـَّی  means "until" when it is followed by a verb in the past tense. When it is followed by a verb in the present tense it will express purpose and, therefore, means "in order to/so that." In that case, the verb should be in the subjunctive mood.

(a)                 سَکنَ هنا حتـَّی حضرتْ عائلتـُهُ.

(b)    إنتـَقـَلـَتْ إلی القاهرةِ حتـَّی تدرُسَ هَناكَ.

69. Negation of Present and Future Tense Verbs

Verbs in the present tense are negated byلا . Verbs which express future tense are negated byلـنْ   after dropping the future marker prefix (سـَ ) . Please remember that the verb has to be changed to the Subjunctive Mood.

a. We don’t watch/see this movie.  لا نـُشاهِدُ هذا الفلم.

b. We will not watch/see this movie.لـن نـُشاهِدَ هذا الفلم.

70. The Sick Verbs الافعال المعتلة

Any verb that has a long vowel as one of the three radicals in its root is called a “sick verb.” These long vowels will go through a change when the verb is used in the present tense. Consequently, there are three types.

a.Assimilated , if the first radical of the verb is a long vowel such as:

  وَصَلَ / يَصِلُ “to arrive.”

b.Hollow , when the second radical position is occupied by a long vowel such as:

 سارَ / يَسيرُ “to walk.”

c.Defective , when the third radical position is occupied by a long vowel such as:

       دَعا / يَدعو “to invite.”

To check how these irregular verbs are conjugated to the various pronouns for both present & past tenses, please

check the computer program at the website address given earlier.

71.  کـَلُّ ، بَعضُ are nouns and when used before another noun they create an Idaafa (a). If, however, they are used after a noun, they will be emphatic for that proceeding noun, and will carry its case and its identical pronoun reference (b).

a.          تـَعلـَّمنا کـُلَّ جُملِ الدَّرسِ.

b. تـَعلـَّمنا جُمَلَ الدَّرسِ کـُلـَّها/ کـُلـَّهُ.

72. The Plural Vocatives   أيـُّها  and أيـَّتـُها

You have already been introduced to the vocative  يا , which is used with singular nouns and, therefore, could be followed by a proper noun, a title, or an Idaafa, regardless of the gender.

يا سميرُ!   ،    يا أستاذةُ!   ،    يا مَديرَ المکتـَبِ!

The plural forms show gender distinction and, therefore, Arabic has أيـُّها  for the masculine and   أيـَّتـُها for the feminine. The plural vocative should be followed by a noun with the definite article in the nominative case.

أيُّها الطلاَّبُ! أيَّتـُها الطالباتُ!     

73. Masculine Sound Plural

It was mentioned earlier that theMasculine Sound Plural (MSP) is formed by suffixing (ونَ ) for the nominative case, and ( ـينَ ) for the accusative and genitive cases, to the singular           form of the noun.

موَظـَّفٌ – موَظـَّفونَ / موَظـَّفينَ

The final (ـنَ ) of this kind of plural is dropped when such a noun takes the position of a first term of Idaafa. This rule applies regardless of the case of the noun, whether it is nominative, accusative, or genitive.

موَظـَّفو الجامعةِ / موَظـَّفي الجامعةِ

the university employees (N and A & G)

74. Negation of the Future Tense (Revisited).

When the future verb is marked by (سَـ ) the negation particle that is used should be لنْ   followed by the verb in the subjunctive mood.

   لنْ أذهَبَ إلی البَيتِ becomesسأذهَبُ إلی البَيتِ

       If the future tense is marked by سَوفَ then such a construction may be made negative by placingلا before the imperfect indicative verb.

سوفَ لا أذهبُ إلی البيتِ becomesسوفَ أذهبُ إلی البَيتِ

75. Verbs with Two Objects.

Among verbs that take two objects is a group that means "to give/to grant." Consider the following example:

أعطتِ المرأةُ بِنتـَها هديَّة ً.

The woman gave her daughter a present.

The direct object is هديَّة and the indirect object isبِنتـَها

76. The Semi-Diptotes

The Semi-Diptotes is another category that includes colors, the elative patterns of adjectives and some broken plural patterns. They behave like Diptotes and, therefore, they do not take Nunation and they take the accusative marker for the genitive case.

The ruler is on a green book.                  ألمِسطرَةُ علی کتابٍ أخضرَ .

They (m) study in private schools.يُدَرِّسونَ في مَدارسَ خاصَّةٍ.

I talked to a girl who was taller than her sister.تکلـَّمتُ مع بنتٍ أطولَ من أختِها.

However, they can take the definite article. When they do, they behave like regular nouns or adjectives.

ألمِسطرَةُ علی الکتابِ الأخضرِ.

يُدَرِّسونَ في المَدارس ِ الخاصَّةِ.       

    .تکلـَّمتُ مع البنتِ ال أ طول ِ من أختِها

77. کانَ & her Sisters  ( أصبحَ ، بَقيَ ، ما زالَ ، ظلَّ ، صارَ ، لـَيسَ)

کانَ & her Sisters  (أصبحَ ، بَقيَ ، ما زالَ ، ظلَّ ، صارَ ، لـَيسَ),  which usually go with equational sentences, leave the subject in its nominative case but change the inflected predicate to the accusative case.

The food was delicious.                  کان الأکلُ لذيذاً.

The food is not delicious.      لـَيسَ  الأکلُ لذيذاً.

You know that equational sentences refer to present time. The equivalent in past time is expressed by using the verb کانَ .

78. Nouns are said to be in Apposition   البَدَل

Nouns are said to be in Apposition   البَدَل to another noun when you can drop off any of them without affecting the semantics of the sentence. Grammatically and logically speaking, both of the nouns should carry the same case marker.

کانَ الخليفة ُ عُمَرُ عادلاً.

The Caliph Omar was fair.

79. The Moody Present Tense.

Present tense verbs are said to be in theIndicative Mood . However, verbs which express hope, desire, purpose, like, dislike, doubt, fear, uncertainty, obligations, etc., change their mood from the regularIndicative to theSubjunctive . That also requires that they should follow one of the Subjunctive particles, such as    .  لکي ، کيلا ، لـِ ، أن ، لـَن ، حتـَّی ، کي  Note the purpose expressed in the following sentence:

ذهبتُ إلی المکتبَةِ لأدرُسَ هُناكَ .

I went to the library so that I would study there.

80. In the Subjunctive Mood

In the Subjunctive Mood of the Arabic verb, the final (نَ  ) of the third person masculine plural is dropped and replaced by a silent (ا ) .

they (m) go                        يَذهبونَ

in order for them (m) to go         لِيذهبوا

In addition to( لِـ ) , other particles of subjunctivity which express purpose/intention and, thus, mean “in order to, so that.” include حتـَّی ، کي ، لکي .

سافروا إلی مصرَ لِيدرسوا هُناكَ .

 They (m) traveled to Egypt in order to study there.

The original form of the underlined verb is  ( يدرسونَ )

Please note that the final ( نَ )  of  the second person feminine singular should also be dropped, but without replacement with silent (ا).

                     you (f.s.) study                              تـَدرُسينَ

     so that you (f.s.) study            لکي تـَدرَسي

سافرتِ إلی مصرَ لکي تـَدرُسي هُناكَ .

                    You (f.s.) traveled to Egypt in order to study there.

  The original form of the underlined verb is  ( تَدرُسينَ )

81. أن

The most common subjunctive particle in Arabic is probablyأنْ ,    which usually sits between two verbs referring to the same or a different person, and thus, functioning something like the infinitive in English. If you examine the sentence carefully, you will notice thatأنْ   introduces a subordinate clause which functions as an object for the main verb.

اُريدُ أنْ أذهَبَ إلی المصرفِ.

  I want to go to the bank.

82. It has been mentioned earlier that ما  can be used as a question word and as a negation particle for the verb in past tense. In addition, it can be used to be as a part of a nominalizer as in:

قابلتـَهَ عندما سَکنَ في هذا البَيتِ.

I met him when he lived in this house.

83. The Nominalizer إنَّ & her Sisters ( لعلَّ ، أنَّ ، کأنَّ ، لکنَّ ، لأنَّ )

The Nominalizer إنَّ & her Sisters ( لعلَّ ، أنَّ ، کأنَّ ، لکنَّ ، لأنَّ ) change the subject nominative case marker to the accusative but they leave the predicate in its nominative case. By the way, أنَّ / إنَّ are called "Nominalizers" because they introduce nominal sentences.

إنَّ الأکلَ لذيذ ٌ.

In fact, the food is delicious.

  قالتْ اُختي أنَّ الأکلَ لذيذ ٌ.

My sister said that the food was delicious.

لکنَّ الأکلَ لذيذ ٌ.

... but the food was delicious.

إنَّ   is only used in the initial position of a sentence, and following any form ofقالَ . Anywhere else you have to useأنَّ . Its meaning, therefore, changes from "indeed/in fact" to "that". Remember that all these particles should be followed by nouns or attached pronoun suffixes. Also notice that إنَّ and her sisters should be followed by the subject or its corresponding attached pronoun.

84. Adjectives

We learned earlier that adjectives in Arabic are usually placed after the noun they modify, and therefore, they agree in terms of number, gender, definiteness/indefiniteness, and case with that noun. The comparative and superlative degrees of the adjectives are formulated following the pattern [Af’alu] ( أفعَلُ ) . They should be treated as Diptotes (no Nunation & accusative marker for genitive case).

Therefore,   قَريبٌ -------->  أقربُ

and   جَميلٌ -------->  أجملُ

a. With comparative adjectives, you need to use the preposition (مِنْ ) to compare the two nouns, as in:

My house is smaller than hers.  بَيتي أصغرُ مِنْ بَيتِها

b. In superlative, the most common method is to place the adjective before the noun, as in:

بَيتي أصغرُ بُيتٍ في القريةِ.

My house is the smallest (house) in  the village

Please remember that the comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are gender blind. Therefore, أصغرُ can be used for feminine and masculine nouns as well.

85.  کانَ& her Sisters (Revisited).

We said earlier thatکانَ & her Sisters are used with equational sentences. However, they can tolerate the use of verbs after them. That verb has to be in the present indicative form, as in:

کانـَتْ تـَعملُ في مَکتـَبـِها.

              She was working in her office.

If the subject is expressed, it should be placed betweenکانَ & her sisters and the verb.

کانـَتِ الأستاذةُ تـَعملُ في مَکتـَبـِها.

The professor was working in her office.

An exception to this rule is when you want to topicalize the subject, and that simply means that you want to emphasize it.

الأستاذة ُ کانـَتْ تـَعملُ في مَکتـَبـِها.

86. Phony/Fake Idaafa.

You might have noticed that the noun which follows the adjective that is in the superlative form structure is in the genitive case.

بَيتي أصغرُ بَيتٍ في القريَةِ.

The reason is that this combination creates the Syntactical Environment for Idaafa. Because the components of this structure are not limited to the usual nouns (the first term is in fact an adjective) Arab Grammarians tend to call this Phony/Fake Idaafa.

87. If the Perfect Particle  قد

If the Perfect Particle  قد is used with a verb in the past tense, then both are translated as a Present Perfect (has/have + Participle).

She has worked in this factory. قد عَمِلتْ في هذا المَصنع ِ.

When this particle is used with کانَ and a verb, then the whole phrase is translated as a Past Perfect (had+participle).

کانَ صديقي قد زارَني قـَبلَ سَنـَةٍ.

   My friend had visited me a year ago.

88. The Verbal Noun  المَصدَر 

The Verbal Noun  المَصدَر  is a noun that is derived from a verb. Therefore, it acts like a noun, as in the following examples:

a. a subject                 العَمَلُ في هذهِ الشرکةِ صَعبٌ.

b. an object                                         اُحِبُّ القراءَةَ.  

c. a first term of Idaafa      بِناءُ المَدارس ِ شيءٌ جَيِّدٌ.

d. a second term of Idaafe       کِتابُ القراءَةِ جَديدٌ.  

e. a predicate                              هوايَتي هي الطـَّبخُ.

A verbal noun derived from a transitive verb does sometimes act like that verb and would take an object.

أعجَبَني تـَدريسُ الأستاذِ العربيَّة َ .

89. Forms of Verbal Nouns

Action/activity is expressed by verbs and verbal nouns. Like other languages, the verbal nouns in Arabic indicate that action/activity, and behave like regular nouns. The

       following chart shows the various ways of derivation according to the forms:

Verb Form       Verbal Noun          Verb Example      Verbal Noun Example

I.           فـَعَلَ              unpredictable             any verb              unpredictable       

II.       فـَعَّلَ   تـَدريسٌ           دَرَّسَ                تـَفعيلٌ       

III.    مُشاهَدَة ٌ          شاهَدَ                مُفاعَلـَة ٌ           فاعَلَ              

IV.   إعجابٌ          أعجَبَ                إفعالٌ             أفعَلَ          

Vتـَحَدُّثٌ           تـَحَدَّثَ               تـَفـَعُلٌ            تـَفـَعَّلَ  .

VI.  تـَراسُلٌ          تـَراسَلَ                تـَفاعُلٌ          تـَفاعَلَ    

VII.   إنصِرافٌ        إنصَرَفَ              إنفِعالٌ           إنفـَعَلَ  

VIII.  إستِلامٌ           إستـَلـَمَ                إفتِعالٌ           إفتـَعَلَ  

IX.     إحمِرارٌ          إحمَرَّ                 إفعِلالٌ            إفعَلَّ

X. إستـِخدامٌ        إستـَخدَمَ             إستِفعالٌ          إستـَفعَلَ

90. The Dropping of the Shadda of إنَّ and her sisters لکنَّ ، کأنَّ ، أنَّ

Arab grammarians call this تـَخفيفُ النون . It was mentioned earlier that these particles change the subject's vowel marker from nominative to accusative case. When the Shadda is eliminated, the subject maintains its nominative case marker (a). Furthermore, these particles will tolerate the use of verbs (b) after them.

سَمِعتُ أنَّ الأستاذة َ قادِمَة ٌ.    

(a) سَمِعتُ أنْ الأستاذة ُ قادِمَة ٌ.

I heard that the professor (f) is coming.

سافـَرَتْ جارتي إلی بغدادَ لکنَّزَوجَها سافـَرَ إلی القاهِرَةِ.   

(b)سافـَرَتْ جارتي إلی بغدادَ لکنْ سافـَرَ زَوجُها إلی القاهِرَةِ.

My neighbor travelled to Baghdad, but her husband travelled to Cairo.

91. The Relative Pronouns  ضَمائرَ الوصل

The Relative Pronouns  ضَمائرَ الوصل are used to introduce subordinate adjectival clauses and therefore create complex sentences. The choice of such pronouns depends on the antecedent's number and gender.

 الذي      is used for masculine singular.

     التي is used for feminine singular.

 اللواتي  is used for feminine plural.

  الذينَ   is used for masculine plural.

a. If the antecedent is part of the subject phrase, the relative clause is embedded inside the main sentence.

الرَّجُلُالذي سألَ عَنها هُنا.

b. If the antecedent is part of the object phrase/predicate, then the relative close follows the main sentence.

قابَلتُ الرَّجُلَ الذي سألَ عَنها .    

c. If the antecedent is indefinite, you do not need to use a relative pronoun.

قابَلتُ رَجَُلا ً سألَ عَنها .    

d. Sometimes you will encounter a sentence with a relative pronoun and a        relative clause, in which the antecedent is absent, but still understood.

الذي دَرَّسَني العَربيَّة َ اُستاذ ٌ مصريٌّ.

    Originally, this sentence is:

 (الأستاذ ُ) الذي دَرَّسَني العَربيَّة َ اُستاذ ٌ مصريٌّ.

92. ما (Revisited)

We mentioned earlier three possible ways of using this word. The fourth possibility for usingما is as a relative pronoun likeالذي . With that, it can introduce a relative clause for an antecedent that is only expressed in a form of an object pronoun.

اُحِبُّ ما / الذي قـَرأتـُهُ هذا الأسبوعَ.

I like what I read this week.

93. The Cognate Accusative  المَفعولُ المُطلق

The Cognate Accusative  المَفعولُ المُطلق is a vebal noun, which is derived from the same verb of the sentence, and it does come in a phrase as:

 a. indefinite that is followed by an adjective

يُحِبُّ هذا الرَّجُلُ بَلَدَهُ حُـبَّا ً عظيما ً.

This man loves his country a lot.

b. definite as a part of Idaafa or following بَعضٌ ، کـُلٌّ

تـَحترِمُ اُستاذتـَهااحترامَ البنتِ لأمِّها .

She respects her professor (the way) a daughter respects her mother.

ساعَدَها أهلـُها کـُلَّ المساعَدَةِ .

Her family helped her greatly.

Please remember that the Cognate Accusative phrase functions as an adverb to modify the verb of the sentence.

94. The noun  نـَفسُ 

The noun  نـَفسُ  is feminine and means "soul." If you use it before another noun it will create Idaafa and change its meaning to "same."

يأکلُ دائما ً في نفس ِ المطعم ِ.

He always eats at the same restaurant.

If it follows a noun, it should carry a corresponding pronoun reference to that noun and its case as well. Its function becomes emphatic.

قابلتُ المُراسِلَ نـَفسَهُ.

I met the correspondant, himself.

95. The Emphasis  التوکيد

The Emphasis  التوکيد with the use ofنـَفسُ ، بَعضُ ، کـُلُّ   . Emphasis can be expressed by using any of the above particles after a noun, providing that an identical

personal pronoun be suffixed. The particle should carry the same case marker of the noun it refers to.

a. nominative

حَضَرَ المُعلـِّمُ نـَفسُهُ .

The teacher, himself, came.

b. accusative

شاهَدتُ المُدرِّساتِ کـُلـَّهُنَّ.

I saw the teachers (f), all of them.

c. genitive

تـَحَدَّثتُ إلی الطلابِ بَعضِهـِم.

I spoke to the students, some of them.

96. غيرُ

غيرُ is a noun which will create Idaafa when it is used with another noun (a). It  also serves to negate nouns and adjectives and may be translated "non-," "un-," and so on. When it is used in such a Syntactical Environment (i.e., with adjectives) it creates what we call "Phony/Fake Idaafa," where the second term is an adjective (b).

a. حَضَرَ الاجتماعَ الطلابُ وغَيرُ الطلابِ.

Students and non-students attended the meeting

b.کانَ عَمَلـُهُ غَيرَ مَقبول ٍ.

His act was unacceptable.

97. The Imperative Mood

The Imperative Mood of the verb is used when someone is given a direct command or making a request. This command/request is either (a) positive or (b) negative.

a.إذهبي إلی المَکتبَةِ

You (f.s.) go to the library!

b.لا تـَذهبي إلی المَکتبَةِ

You (f.s.) do not go to the library!

The verb that is used in both cases is formed from thesecond person Jussive Mood with a little modification. In (a) you need to drop the subject marker prefix and insert a Hamza /إ / instead to break the resulting consonant cluster, as inذهَبي . In the case of the negative imperative (b) you just put the negation particleلا in front of the verb.

98.

Though the imperative structure is inherently addressed to a second person, it can also be expressed indirectly. In this case you should have in mind either (a) first person or (b) third person. You can form that by prefixing the particles (لـِ ) or (فـَلـ ) to the Jussive Mood verb.

 (a)لِنأکـُلْ في هذا المَطعَم ِ.

Let us eat at this restaurant!

 (b)إلی بُيوتِهـِم.  فـَليذهبوا

Let them (m) go to their homes!

99. The preposition  مُنذ

Which means "since," is generally used with words that express time concepts such as ساعَة ٌ ، يَومٌ ، اُسبوعٌ ، شهرٌ ، سَنَة ٌ etc.

ذَهَبَ إلی البَيتِ مُنذ ُ ساعَةٍ.

He went home since an hour.

It can also be used with verbs and, therefore, changes its semantic/syntactic functions to an adverb of time.

ما قابَلتـُها مُنذ ُ افتـَرَقنا.

I have not met her since we separated.

100. The Apposition  البَدَل (Revisted)

A noun is said to be in apposition to another noun if it offers additional information about that noun. The apposition noun should agree with the original noun's case, gender, and number.

قابَلتُ مُديرَ المَدرَسَةِ عليَّا ً.

I met the school principle, Mr. Ali.