Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Notes

Introduction

1. Thierry Desjardins, Le Martyre du Liban (Paris: Plon, 1976), p. 14.

2. K. M. Panikkar, Asia and Western Dominance (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1959).

3. Denys Hay, Europe: The Emergence of an Idea, 2nd ed. (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1968).

4. Steven Marcus, The Other Victorians: A Study of Sexuality and Pornography in Mid-Nineteenth Century England (1966; reprint ed., New York: Bantam Books, 1967), pp. 200-19.

5. See my Criticism Between Culture and System (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, forthcoming).

6. Principally in his American Power and the New Mandarins: Historical and Political Essays (New York: Pantheon Books, 1969) and For Reasons of State (New York: Pantheon Books, 1973).

7. Walter Benjamin, Charles Baudelaire: A Lyric Poet in the Era of High Capitalism, trans. Harry Zohn (London: New Left Books, 1973), p. 71. & Harry Bracken, "Essence, Accident and Race," Hermathena 116 (Winter 1973): 81-96.

9. In an interview published in Diacritics 6, no. 3 (Fall 1976): 38.

10. Raymond Williams, The Long Revolution (London: Chatto & Windus, 1961), pp. 66-7.

11. In my Beginnings: Intention and Method (New York: Basic Books, 1975).

12. Louis Althusser, For Marx, trans. Ben Brewster (New York: Pantheon Books,1969), pp. 65-7.

13. Raymond Schwab, La Renaissance orientale (Paris: Payot, 1950); Johann W. Flick, Die Arabischen Studien in Europa bis in den Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz, 1955); Dorothee Metlitzki, The Matter of Araby in Medieval England (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977).

14. E. S. Shaffer, "Kubla Khan" and The Fall of Jerusalem: The Mythological School in Biblical Criticism and Secular Literature, 1770-1880 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975).

15. George Eliot, Middlemarch: A Study of Provincial Life (1872; reprint ed., Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1956), p. 164.

16. Antonio Gramsci, The Prison Notebooks: Selections, trans. and ed. Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith (New York: International Publishers, 1971), p. 324. The full passage, unavailable in the Hoare and Smith translation, is to be found in Gramsci, Quaderni del Carcere, ed. Valentino Gerratana (Turin: Einaudi Editore, 1975), 2: 1363.

17. Raymond Williams, Culture and Society, 1780-1950 (London: Chatto & Windus, 1958), p. 376.

Chapter 1: The Scope of Orientalism

1. This and the preceding quotations from Arthur James Balfour's speech to the House of Commons are from Great Britain, Parliamentary Debates (Commons), 5th ser., 17 (1910): 1140-46. See also A. P. Thornton, The Imperial Idea and Its Enemies: A Study in British Power (London: Mao Millan & Co., 1959), pp. 357-60. Balfour's speech was a defense of Eldon Gorst's policy in Egypt; for a discussion of that see Peter John Dreyfus Mellini, "Sir Eldon Gorst and British Imperial Policy in Egypt," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1971.

2. Denis Judd, Balfour and the British Empire: A Study in Imperial Evolution, 1874-1932 (London: MacMillan & Co., 1968), p. 286. See also p. 292: as late as 1926 Balfour spoke-without irony-of Egypt as an "independent nation."

3. Evelyn Baring, Lord Cromer, Political and Literary Essays, 1908-1913 (1913; reprint ed., Freeport, N. Y.: Books for Libraries Press, 1969), pp. 40, 53, 12-14.

4. Ibid., p. 171.

S. Roger Owen, "The Influence of Lord Cromer's Indian Experience on British Policy in Egypt 1883-1907," in Middle Eastern Affairs, Number Four: St. Antony's Papers Number 17, ed. Albert Hourani (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), pp. 109-39.

6. Evelyn Baring, Lord Cromer, Modern Egypt (New York: Macmillan Co., 1908), 2: 146-67. For a British view of British policy in Egypt that runs totally counter to Cromer's, see Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, Secret History of the English Occupation of Egypt: Being a Personal Narrative of Events (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1922). There is a valuable discussion of Egyptian opposition to British rule in Mounah A. Khouri, Poetry and the Making of Modern Egypt, 1882-1922 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1971).

7. Cromer, Modern Egypt, 2: 164.

8. Cited in John Marlowe, Cromer in Egypt (London: Elek Books, 1970), p. 271.

9. Harry Magdoff, "Colonialism (1763-c. 1970)," Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th ed. (1974), pp. 893-4. See also D. K. Fieldhouse, The Colonial Empires: A Comparative Survey from the Eighteenth Century (New York: Delacorte Press, 1967), p. 178.

10. Quoted in Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid, Egypt and Cromer. A Study in AngloEgyptian Relations (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1969), p. 3.

11. The phrase is to be found in Ian Hacking, The Emergence of Probability: A Philosophical Study of Early Ideas About Probability, Induction and Statistical Inference (London: Cambridge University Press, 1975), p. 17.

12. V. G. Kiernan, The Lords of Human Kind: Black Man, Yellow Man, and White Man in an Age of Empire (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1969), p. 55.

13. Edgar Quinet, Le Génie des religions, in Oeuvres complètes (Paris: Paguerre, 1857), pp. 55-74.

14. Cromer, Political and Literary Essays, p. 35.

15. See Jonah Raskin, The Mythology of Imperialism (New York: Random House, 1971), p. 40.

16. Henry A. Kissinger, American Foreign Policy (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1974), pp. 48-9.

17. Harold W. Glidden, "The Arab World," American Journal of Psychiatry 128, no. 8 (February 1972): 984-8.

18. R. W. Southern, Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1962), p. 72. See also Francis Dvornik, The Ecumenical Councils (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1961), pp. 65-6: "Of special interest is the eleventh canon directing that chairs for teaching Hebrew, Greek, Arabic and Chaldean should be created at the main universities. The suggestion was Raymond Lull's, who advocated learning Arabic as the best means for the conversion of the Arabs. Although the canon remained almost without effect as there were few teachers of Oriental languages, its acceptance indicates the growth of the missionary idea in the West. Gregory X had already hoped for the conversion of the Mongols, and Franciscan friars had penetrated into the depths of Asia in their missionary zeal. Although these hopes were not fulfilled, the missionary spirit continued to develop." See also Johann W. Fűck, Die Arabischen Studien in Europa bis in den Anfang des 20.Jahrhunderts (Leipzig: Otto Harrasso witz, 1955).

19. Raymond Schwab, La Renaissance orientale (Paris: Payot, 1950). See also V: V. Barthold, La Découverte de l'Asie: Histoire de l'orientalisme en Europe et en Russie, trans. B. Nikitine (Paris: Payot, 1947), and the relevant pages in Theodor Benfey, Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft and Orientalischen Philologie in Deutschland (Munich: Gottafschen, 1869). For an instructive contrast see James T. Monroe, Islam and the Arabs in Spanish Scholarship (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1970).

20. Victor Hugo, Oeuvres poétiques, ed. Pierre Albouy (Paris: Gallimard, 1964), 1: 580.

21. Jules Mohl, Vingt-sept Ans d'histoire des études orientales: Rapports laits à la Société asiatique de Paris de 1840 à 1867, 2 vols. (Paris: Reinwald, 1879-80).

22. Gustave Dugat, Histoire des orientalistes de l’Europe du X11 au XIX siècle, 2 vols. (Paris: Adrien Maisonneuve, 1868-70).

23. See René Gérard, L'Orient et la pensée romantique allemande (Paris:Didier, 1963) , p. 112.

24. Kiernan, Lords of Human Kind, p. 131.

25. University Grants Committee, Report of the Sub-Committee on Oriental, Slavonic, East European and African Studies (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1961).

26. H. A. R. Gibb, Area Studies Reconsidered (London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1964).

27. See Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Savage Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), chaps.1-7.

28. Gaston Bachelard, The Poetics of Space, trans. Maria Jolas (New York: Orion Press, 1964).

29. Southern, Western Views of Islam, p. 14.

30. Aeschylus, The Persians, trans. Anthony J. Podleck (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970), pp. 73-4.

31. Euripides, The Bacchae, trans. Geoffrey S. Kirk (Englewood Cliffs, N. 1.: Prentice-Hall, 1970), p. 3. For further discussion of the Europe-Orient distinction see Santo Mazzarino, Fra oriente e occidente: Ricerche di storia greca arcaica (Florence: La Nuova Italia, 1947), and. Denys Hay, Europe: The Emergence of an Idea (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1968).

32. Euripides, Bacchae, p. 52.

33. René Grousset, L'Empire du Levant: Histoire de la question d'Orient (Paris: Payot, 1946).

34. Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1855), 6: 399.

35. Norman Daniel, The Arabs and Medieval Europe (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1975), p. 56.

36. Samuel C. Chew, The Crescent and the Rose: Islam and England During the Renaissance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1937), p. 103.

37. Norman Daniel, Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Edinburgh: University Press, 1960), p. 33. See also James Kritzeck, Peter the Venerable and Islam (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1964).

38. Daniel, Islam and the West, p. 252.

39. Ibid., pp. 259-60.

40. See for example William Wistar Comfort, "The Literary Role of the Saracens in the French Epic," PMLA 55 (1940): 628-59.

41. Southern, Western Views of Islam, pp. 91-2, 108-9.

42. Daniel, Islam and the West, pp. 246, 96, and passim.

43. Ibid., p. 84.

44. Duncan Black Macdonald, "Whither Islam?" Muslim World 23 (January 1933): 2.

45. P. M. Holt, Introduction to The Cambridge History of Islam, ed. P. M. Holt, Anne K. S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), p. xvi.

46. Antoine Galland, prefatory "Discours" to Barthélemy d'Herbelot, Bibliothèque orientale, ou Dictionnaire universel contenant tout ce qui fait connaître les peuples de l'Orient (The Hague: Neaulme & van Daalen, 1777), 1: vii.Galland's. point is that d'Herbelot presented real knowledge, not legend or myth of the sort associated with the "marvels of the East." See R. Wittkower, "Marvels of the East: A Study in the History of Monsters," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 5 (1942): 159-97.

47. Galland, prefatory "Discours" to d'Herbelot, Bibliothèque orientale, pp. xvi, xxxiii. For the state of Orientalist knowledge immediately before d'Herbelot, see V. J. Parry, "Renaissance Historical Literature in Relation to the New and Middle East (with Special Reference to Paolo Giovio)," in Historians of the Middle East, ed. Bernard Lewis and P. M. Holt (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), pp. 277-89.

48. Barthold, La Découverte de l'Asie, pp. 137-8.

49. D'Herbelot, Bibliothèque orientale, 2: 648.

50. See also Montgomery Watt, "Muhammad in the Eyes of the West," Boston University Journal 22, no. 3 (Fall 1974): 61-9.

51. Isaiah Berlin, Historical Inevitability (London: Oxford University Press, 1955), pp. 13-14.

52. Henri Pirenne, Mohammed and Charlemagne, trans. Bernard Miall (New York: W. W. Norton & Co.,1939), pp. 234, 283.

53. Quoted by Henri Baudet in Paradise on Earth: Some Thoughts on European Images of Non-European Man, trans. Elizabeth Wentholt (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1965), p. xiii.

54. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 6: 289.

55. Baudet, Paradise on Earth, p. 4.

56. See Fieldhouse, Colonial Empires, pp. 138-61.

57. Schwab, La Renaissance orientale, p. 30.

58. A. J. Arberry, Oriental Essays: Portraits of Seven Scholars (New York: Macmillan Co., 1960), pp. 30, 31.

59. Raymond Schwab, Vie d'Anquetil-Duperron suivie des Usages civils et religieux des Perses par Anquetil-Duperron (Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1934), pp. 10, 96, 4, 6.

60. Arberry, Oriental Essays, pp. 62-6.

61. Frederick Eden Pargiter, ed., Centenary Volume of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 1823-1923 (London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1923), p. viii.

62. Quinet, Le Génie des religions, p. 47.

63. Jean Thiry, Bonaparte en Égypte décembre 1797-24 août 1799 (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1973), p. 9.

64. Constantin-François Volney, Voyage en Égypte et en Syrie (Paris: Bossange, 1821), 2: 241 and passim.

65. Napoleon, Campagnes d’Égypte et de Syrie, 1798-1799: Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de Napoléon (Paris: Comou, 1843), 1: 211.

66. Thiry, Bonaparte en Egypte, p. 126. See also Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, Arab Rediscovery of Europe: A Study in Cultural Encounters (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1963), pp. 12-20.

67. Abu-Lughod, Arab Rediscovery of Europe, p. 22.

68. Quoted from Arthur Helps, The Spanish Conquest of America (London, 1900), p. 196, by Stephen J. Greenblatt, "Learning to Curse: Aspects of Linguistic Colonialism in the Sixteenth Century," in First Images of America: The Impact of the New World on the Old, ed. Fredi Chiapelli (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), p. 573.

69. Thiry, Bonaparte en Égypte, p. 200. Napoleon was not just being cynical. It is reported of him that he discussed Voltaire's Mahomet with Goethe, and defended Islam. See Christian Cherfils, Bonaparte et l'Islam d'après les documents français arabes (Paris: A. Pedone, 1914), p. 249 and passim.

70. Thiry, Bonaparte en Égypte, p. 434.

71. Hugo, Les Orientales, in Oeuvres poétiques, 1: 684.

72. Henri Dehérain, Silvestre de Sacy, ses contemporains et ses disciples (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1938), p. v.

73. Description de l’Égypte, ou Recueil des observations et des recherches qui ont été faites in Égypte pendant l'expédition de l'armée française, publié par les ordres de sa majesté l'empereur Napoléon le grand, 23 vols. (Paris:Imprimerie impériale, 1809-28).

74. Fourier, Préface historique, vol. 1 of Description de l'Égypte, p. 1.

75. Ibid., p. iii.

76. Ibid., p. xcii.

77. Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Histoire naturelle des poissons du Nil, vol. 17 of Description de l'Égypte, p. 2.

78. M. de Chabrol, Essai sur les moeurs des habitants modernes de l'Égypte, vol. 14 of Description de l'Égypte, p. 376.

79. This is evident in Baron Larrey, Notice sur la conformation physique des égyptiens et des différentes races qui habitent en Égypte, suivie de quelques réflexions sur l'embaumement des momies, vol. 13 of Description de l'Égypte.

80. Cited by John Marlowe, The Making of the Suez Canal (London: Cresset Press, 1964), p. 31.

81. Quoted in John Pudney, Suez: De Lesseps' Canal (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1969), pp. 141-2.

82. Marlowe, Making of the Suez Canal, p. 62.

83. Ferdinand de Lesseps, Lettres, journal et documents pour servir à l'histoire du Canal de Suez (Paris: Didier, 1881), 5: 310. For an apt characterization of de Lesseps and Cecil Rhodes as mystics, see Baudet, Paradise on Earth, p. 68.

84. Cited in Charles Beatty, De Lesseps of Suez: The Man and His Times (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1956), p. 220.

85. De Lesseps, Lettres, journal et documents, 5: 17.

86. Ibid., pp. 324-33.

87. Hayden White, Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973), p. 12.

88. Anwar Abdel Malek, "Orientalism in Crisis," Diogenes 44 (Winter 1963):107-8.

89. Friedrich Schlegel, Uber die Sprache and Weisheit der Indier: Ein Beitrag zur Begrundung der Altertumstunde (Heidelberg: Mohr & Zimmer,1808), pp. 44-59; Schlegel, Philosophie der Geschichte: In achtzehn Vorlesungen gehalten zu Wien im Jahre 1828, ed. Jean-Jacques Anstett, vol. 9 of Kritische Friedrich-Schlegel-Ausgabe, ed. Ernest Behler (Munich: Ferdinand Schôningh, 1971), p. 275.

90. Léon Poliakov, The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalist Ideas in Europe, trans. Edmund Howard (New York: Basic Books, 1974).

91. See Derek Hopwood, The Russian Presence in Syria and Palestine, 1843-1943: Church and Politics in the Near East (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969).

92. A. L. Tibawi, British Interests in Palestine, 1800-1901 (London: Oxford University Press, 1961), p. 5.

93. Gérard de Nerval, Oeuvres, ed. Albert Béguin and Jean Richet (Paris: Gallimard, 1960), 1: 933.

94. Hugo, Oeuvres poétiques, 1: 580.

95. Sir Walter Scott, The Talisman (1825; reprint ed., London: J. M. Dent, 1914), pp. 38-9.

96. See Albert Hourani, "Sir Hamilton Gibb, 1895-1971," Proceedings of the British Academy 58 (1972): 495.

97. Quoted by B. R. Jerman, The Young Disraeli (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1960), p. 126. See also Robert Blake, Disraeli (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1966), pp. 59-70.

98. Flaubert in Egypt: A Sensibility on Tour, trans. and ed. Francis Steegmuller (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1973), pp. 44-5. See Gustave Flaubert, Correspondance, ed. Jean Bruneau (Paris: Gallimard, 1973), 1: 542.

99. This is the argument presented in Carl H. Becker, Das Erbe der Antike im Orient and Okzident (Leipzig: Quelle & Meyer, 1931).

100. See Louis Massignon, La Passion d’al-Hosayn-ibn-Mansour al-Hallaf (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1922).

101. Abdel Malek, "Orientalism in Crisis," p'. 112.

102. H. A. R. Gibb, Modern Trends in Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947), p. 7.

103. Gibb, Area Studies Reconsidered, pp. 12, 13.

104. Bernard Lewis, "The Return of Islam," Commentary, January 1976, pp. 39-49.

105. See Daniel Lerner and Harold Lasswell, eds., The Policy Sciences: Recent Developments in Scope and Method (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1951).

106. Morroe Berger, The Arab World Today (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday & Co., 1962), p. 158.

107. There is a compendium of such attitudes listed and criticized in Maxime Rodinson, Islam and Capitalism, trans. Brian Pearce (New York: Pantheon Books, 1973).

108. Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, "Retreat from the Secular Path? Islamic Dilemmas of Arab Politics," Review of Politics 28, no. 4 (October 1966) : 475.

Chapter 2: Orientalist Structures and Restructures

1. Gustave Flaubert, Bouvard et Pécuchet, vol. 2 of Oeuvres, ed. A. Thibaudet and R. Dumesnil (Paris: Gallimard, 1952), p. 985.

2. There is an illuminating account of these visions and utopias in Donald G. Charlton, Secular Religions in France, 1815-1870 (London: Oxford University Press, 1963).

3. M. H. Abrams, Natural Supernaturalism: Tradition and Revolution in Romantic Literature (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1971), p. 66.

4. For some illuminating material see John P. Nash, "The Connection of Oriental Studies with Commerce, Art, and Literature During the 18th-19th Centuries," Manchester Egyptian and Oriental Society Journal 15 (1930) 33-9; also John F. Laffer, "Roots of French Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century: The Case of Lyon," French Historical Studies 6, no. 1 (Spring 1969): 78-92, and R. Leportier, L'Orient Porte des Indes (Paris: Éditions France-Empire, 1970). There is a great deal of information in Henri Omont, Missions archéologiques françaises en Orient aux XVII et XVlll siècles, 2 vols. (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1902), and in Margaret T. Hodgen, Early Anthropology in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1964), as well as in Norman Daniel, Islam, Europe and Empire (Edinburgh: University Press, 1966). Two indispensable short studies are Albert Hourani, "Islam and the Philosophers of History," Middle Eastern Studies 3, no. 3 (April 1967): 206-68, and Maxime Rodinson, "The Western Image and Western Studies of Islam," in The Legacy of Islam, ed. Joseph Schacht and C. E. Bosworth (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974), pp. 9-62.

5. P. M. Holt, "The Treatment of Arab History by Prideaux, Ockley, and Sale," in Historians of the Middle East, ed. Bernard Lewis and P. M. Holt (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), p. 302. See also Holt's The Study of Modern Arab History (London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1965).

6. The view of Herder as populist and pluralist is advocated by Isaiah Berlin, Vico and Herder: Two Studies in the History of Ideas (New York: Viking Press, 1976).

7. For a discussion of such motifs and representations, see Jean Starobinski, The Invention of Liberty, 1700-1789, trans. Bernard C. Smith (Geneva: Skira, 1964). '

8. There are a small number of studies on this too-little-investigated subject. Some well-known ones are: Martha P. Conant, The Oriental Tale in England in the Eighteenth Century (1908; reprint ed., New York: Octagon Books, 1967); Marie E. de Meester, Oriental Influences in the English Literature of the Nineteenth Century, Anglistische Forschungen, no. 46 (Heidelberg, 1915); Byron Porter Smith, Islam in English Literature (Beirut: American Press, 1939). See also Jean-Luc Doutrelant, "L'Orient tragique au XVIII siècle," Revue des Sciences Humaines 146 (April-June 1972): 25582.

9. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (New York: Pantheon Books, 1970), pp. 138, 144. See also Francois Jacob, The Logic of Life: A History of Heredity, trans. Betty E. Spillmann (New York: Pantheon Books, 1973), p. 50 and passim, and Georges Canguilhem, La Connaissance de la vie (Paris: Gustave-Joseph Vrin, 1969), pp. 44-63.

10. See John G. Burke, "The Wild Man's Pedigree: Scientific Method and Racial Anthropology," in The Wild Man Within: An Image in Western Thought from the Renaissance to Romanticism, ed. Edward Dudley and Maximillian E. Novak (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1972), pp. 262-8. See also Jean Biou, "Lumières et anthropophagie," Revue des Sciences Humaines 146 (April-June 1972): 223-34.

11. Henri Dehérain, Silvestre de Sacy: Ses Contemporains et ses disciples (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1938), p. 111.

12. For these and other details see ibid., pp. i-xxxiii.

13. Duc de Broglie, "Éloge de Silvestre de Sacy," in Sacy, Mélanges de littérature orientale (Paris: E. Ducrocq, 1833), p. xii.

14. Bon Joseph Dacier, Tableau historique de l'érudition française, ou Rapport sur les progrès de l'histoire et de la littérature ancienne depuis 1789 (Paris: Imprimerie impériale, 1810), pp. 23, 35, 31.

15. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Pantheon Books, 1977), pp. 193-4.

16. Broglie, "Éloge de Silvestre de Sacy," p. 107.

17. Sacy, Mélanges de littérature orientale, pp. 107, 110, 111-12.

18. Silvestre de Sacy, Chrestomathie arabe, ou Extraits de divers écrivains arabes, tant en prose qu'en vers, avec une traduction française et des notes, d l'usage des élèves de l'École royale et spéciale des langues orientales vivantes (vol. 1, 1826; reprint ed., Osnabrück: Biblio Verlag, 1973), p. viii.

19. For the notions of "supplementarity," "supply," and "supplication," see Jacques Derrida, De la grammatologie (Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1967), p. 203 and passim.

20. For a partial list of Sacy's students and influence see Johann W. Flick, Die Arabischen Studien in Europa bis in den Anfang des 20.Jahrhunderts (Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz, 1955), pp. 156-7.

21. Foucault's characterization of an archive can be found in The Archaeology of Knowledge and the Discourse on Language, trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith and Rupert Sawyer (New York: Pantheon Books, 1972), pp. 79-131. Gabriel Monod, one of Renan's younger and very perspicacious contemporaries, remarks that Renan was by no means a revolutionary in linguistics, archaeology, or exegesis, yet because he had the widest and the most precise learning of anyone in his period, he was its most eminent representative (Renan, Taine, Michelet [Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1894], pp. 40-1). See also Jean-Louis Dumas, "La Philosophic de l'histoire de Renan," Revue de Métaphysique et de Morale 77, no. 1 (January-March 1972: 100-28.

22. Honoré de Balzac, Louis Lambert (Paris: Calmann-Levy, n.d.), p. 4.

23. Nietzsche's remarks on philology are everywhere throughout his works. See principally his notes for "Wir Philologen" taken from his notebooks for the period January-July 1875, translated by William Arrowsmith as "Notes for 'We Philologists,"' Arion, N. S. 1h (1974) : 279-380; also the passages on language and perspectivism in The Will to Power, trans. Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale (New York: Vintage Books, 1968).

24. Ernest Renan, L'Avenir de la science: Pensées de 1848, 4th ed. (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1890), pp. 141, 142-5, 146, 148, 149.

25. Ibid., p. xiv and passim.

26. The entire opening chapter-bk. 1, chap. 1---of the Histoire générale et système comparé des langues sémitiques, in Oeuvres complètes, ed. Henriette Psichari (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1947-61), 8: 143-63, is a virtual encyclopedia of race prejudice directed against Semites (i.e., Moslems and Jews). The rest of the treatise is sprinkled generously with the same notions, as are many of Renan's other works, including L'Avenir de la science, especially Renan's notes.

27. Ernest Renan, Correspondance; 1846-1871 (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1926), 1: 7-12.

28. Ernest Renan, Souvenirs d'enfance et de jeunesse, in Oeuvres complètes, 2: 892. Two works by Jean Pommier treat Renan's mediation between religion and philology in valuable detail: Renan, d'après des documents inédits (Paris: Perrin, 1923), pp. 48-68, and La Jeunesse cléricale d'Ernest Renan (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1933). There is a more recent account in J. Chaix-Ruy, Ernest Renan (Paris: Emmanuel Vitte, 1956), pp. 89-111. The standard description--done more in terms of Renan's religious vocation -is still valuable also: Pierre Lasserre, La Jeunesse d'Ernest Renan: Histoire de la crise religieuse au XIX siècle, 3 vols. (Paris: Garnier Frères, 1925). In vol. 2, pp. 50-166 and 265-98 are useful on the relations between philology, philosophy, and science.

29. Ernest Renan, "Des services rendus aux sciences historiques par la philologie," in Oeuvres complètes 8: 1228.

30. Renan, Souvenirs, p. 892.

31. Foucault, The Order of Things, pp. 290-300. Along with the discrediting of the Edenic origins of language, a number of other events-the Deluge, the building of the Tower Babel-also were discredited as explanations. The most comprehensive history of theories of linguistic origin is Arno Borst Der Turmbau von Babel: Geschichte der Meinungen über Ursprung and Vielfalt der Sprachen and Volker, 6 vols. (Stuttgart: Anton Hiersemann, 1957-63).

32. Quoted by Raymond Schwab, La Renaissance orientale (Paris: Payot, 1950), p. 69. On the dangers of too quickly succumbing to generalities about Oriental discoveries, see the reflections of the distinguished contemporary, Sinologist Abel Rémusat, Mélanges postumes d'histoire et littérature orientales (Paris: Imprimerie royale, 1843), p. 226 and passim.

33. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Biographia Literaria, chap. 16, in Selected Poetry and Prose of Coleridge, ed. Donald A. Stauffer (New York: Random House, 1951), pp. 276-7.

34. Benjamin Constant, Oeuvres, ed. Alfred Roulin (Paris: Gallimard, 1957), p. 78.

35. Abrams, Natural Supernaturalism, p. 29.

36. Renan, De l'origine du langage, in Oeuvres complètes, 8: 122.

37. Renan, "De la part des peuples sémitiques dans l'histoire de la civilisation," in Oeuvres complètes, 2: 320.

38. Ibid., p. 333.

39. Renan, "Trois Professeurs au Collège de France: Étienne Quatremère," in Oeuvres complètes, 1: 129. Renan was not wrong about Quatremère, who had a talent for picking interesting subjects to study and then making them quite uninteresting. See his essays "Le Goût des livres chez les orientaux" and "Des sciences chez les arabes," in his Mélanges d'histoire et de philologie orientales (Paris: E. Ducrocq, 1861), pp. 1-57.

40. Honoré de Balzac, La Peau de chagrin, vol. 9 (Etudes philosophiques 1) of La Comédie humaine, ed. Marcel Bouteron (Paris: Gallimard, 1950), p. 39; Renan, Histoire générale des langues sémitiques, p. 134.

41. See, for instance, De l'origine du langage, p. 102, and Histoire générale, p. 180.

42. Renan, L'Avenir de la science, p. 23. The whole passage reads as follows: "Pour moi, je ne connais qu'un seul résultat à la science, c'est de résoudre l'énigme, c'est de dire définitivement à l'homme le mot des choses, c'est de l'expliquer à lui-même, c'est de lui donner, au nom de la seule autorité légitime qui est la nature humaine toute entière, le symbole qué les religions lui donnaient tout fait et qu'ils ne peut plus accepter."

43. See Madeleine V.-David, Le Débat sur les écritures et l'hiéroglyphe aux XVll et XVIII siècles et l'application de la notion de déchiffrement aux écritures mortes (Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N., 1965), p. 130.

44. Renan is mentioned only in passing in Schwab's La Renaissance orientale, not at all in Foucault's The Order of Things, and only somewhat disparagingly in Holger Pederson's The Discovery of Language: Linguistic Science in the Nineteenth Century, trans. John Webster Spargo (1931; reprint ed., Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1972). Max Müller in his Lectures on the Science of Language (1861-64; reprint ed., New York: Scribner, Armstrong, & Co., 1875) and Gustave Dugat in his Histoire des orientalistes de l'Europe du Xll au XIX siècle, 2 vols. (Paris: Adrien Maisonneuve, 1868-70) do not mention Renan at all. James Darmesteter's Essais Orientaux (Paris: A. Lévy, 1883) -whose first item is a history, "L'Orientalisme en France"-is dedicated to Renan but does not mention his contribution. There are half-a dozen short notices of Renan's production in Jules Mohl's encyclopedic (and extremely valuable) quasi-logbook, Vingtsept ans d'histoire des études orientales: Rapports.Faits à la Société asiatique de Paris de 1840 à 1867, 2 vols. (Paris: Reinwald, 1879-80).

45. In works dealing with race and racism Renan occupies a position of some importance. He is treated in the following: Ernest Seillière, La Philosophiede l'impérialisme, 4 vols. (Paris: Plon, 1903-8); Théophile Simar, Étude critique sur la formation de la doctrine des races au XVIII siècle et son expansion au XIX siècle (Brussels: Hayez, 1922); Erich Voegelin, Rasse and Staat (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1933), and here one must also mention his Die Rassenidee in der Geistesgeschichte von Ray bis Carus (Berlin: Junker and Dunnhaupt, 1933), which, although it does not deal with Renan's period, is an important complement to Rasse and Staat; Jacques Barzun, Race: A Study in Modern Superstition (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1937).

46. In La Renaissance orientale Schwab has some brilliant pages on the museum, on the parallelism between biology and linguistics, and on Cuvier, Balzac, and others; see p. 323 and passim. On the library and its importance for mid-nineteenth-century culture, see Foucault, "La Bibliothèque fantastique," which is his preface to Flaubert's La Tentation de Saint Antoine (Paris: Gallimard, 1971), pp. 7-33. 1 am indebted to Professor Eugenio Donato for drawing my attention to these matters; see his "A Mere Labyrinth of Letters: Flaubert and the Quest for Fiction," Modern Language Notes 89, no. 6 (December 1974): 885-910.

47. Renan, Histoire générale, pp. 145-6.

48. See L'Avenir de la science, p. 508 and passim.

49. Renan, Histoire générale, p. 214.

50. Ibid., p. 527. This idea goes back to Friedrich Schlegel's distinction between organic and agglutinative languages, of which latter type Semitic is an instance. Humboldt makes the same distinction, as have most Orientalists since Renan.

51. Ibid., pp. 531-2.

52. Ibid., p. 515 and passim.

53. See Jean Seznec, Nouvelles Études sur "La Tentation de Saint Antoine" (London: Warburg Institute, 1949), p. 80.

54. See Êtienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Philosophie anatomique: Des monstruosités humaines (Paris: published by the author, 1822). The complete title of Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire's work is: Histoire générale et particulière des anomalies de l'organisation chez l'homme et les animaux, ouvrage comprenante des recherches sur les caractères, la classification, l'influence physiologique et pathologique, les rapports généraux, les lois et les causes des monstruosités, des variétés et vices de conformation, ou traité de tératologie, 3 vols. (Paris: J.-B. Baillière, 1832-36). There are some valuable pages on Goethe's biological ideas in Erich Heller, The Disinherited Mind (New York: Meridian Books, 1959), pp. 3-34. See also Jacob, The Logic of Life, and Canguilhem, La Connaissance de la vie, pp. 174-84, for very interesting accounts of the Saint-Hilaires' place in the development of the life sciences.

55. E. Saint-Hilaire, Philosophie anatomique, pp. xxii-xxiii.

56. Renan, Histoire générale, p. 156.

57. Renan, Oeuvres complètes, 1: 621-2 and passim. See H. W. Wardman, Ernest Renan: A Critical Biography (London: Athlone Press, 1964), p. 66 and passim, for a subtle description of Renan's domestic life; although one would not wish to force a parallel between Renan's biography and what I have called his "masculine" world, Wardman's descriptions here are suggestive indeed-at least to me.

58. Renan, "Des services rendus au sciences historiques par la philologie," in Oeuvres complètes, 8: 1228, 1232.

59. Ernst Cassirer, The Problem of Knowledge: Philosophy, Science, and History since Hegel, trans. William H. Woglom and Charles W. Hendel (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1950), p. 307.

60. Renan, "Réponse au discours de réception de M. de Lesseps (23 avril 1885)," in Oeuvres complètes, 1: 817. Yet the value of being truly contemporary was best shown with reference to Renan by Sainte-Beuve in his articles of June 1862. See also Donald G. Charlton, Positivist Thought in France During the Second Empire (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959), and his Secular Religions in France. Also Richard M. Chadbourne, "Renan and Sainte-Beuve," Romanic Review 44, no. 2 (April 1953): 126-35.

61. Renan, Oeuvres complètes, 8: 156.

62. In his letter of June 26, 1856, to Gobineau, Oeuvres complètes, 10: 203-4. Gobineau's ideas were expressed in his Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines (1853-55).

63. Cited by Albert Hourani in his excellent article "Islam and the Philosophers of History," p. 222.

64. Caussin de Perceval, Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes avant l'Islamisme, pendant l'époque de Mahomet et jusqu'à la réduction de toutes les tribus sous la loi musulmane (1847-48; reprint ed., Graz, Austria: Akademische Druck- and Verlagsanstalt, 1967), 3: 332-9.

65. Thomas Carlyle, On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History (1841; reprint ed., New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1906), p. 63.

66. Macaulay's Indian experiences are described by G. Otto Trevelyan, The Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay (New York: Harper & Brothers,

1875), 1: 344-71. The complete text of Macaulay's "Minute" is conveniently to be found in Philip D. Curtin, ed., Imperialism: The Documentary History of Western Civilization (New York: Walker & Co., 1971), pp. 178-91. Some consequences of Macaulay's views for British Orientalism are discussed in A. J. Arberry, British Orientalists (London: William Collins, 1943).

67. John Henry Newman, The Turks in Their Relation to Europe, vol. 1 of his Historical Sketches (1853; reprint ed., London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1920).

68. See Marguerite-Louise Ancelot, Salons de Paris, foyers éteints (Paris: Jules Tardieu, 1858).

69. Karl Marx, Surveys from Exile, ed. David Fernbach (London: Pelican Books, 1973), pp. 306-7.

70. Ibid., p. 320.

71. Edward William Lane, Author's Preface to An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians (1836; reprint ed., London: J. M. Dent, 1936), pp. xx, xxi.

72. Ibid., p. 1.

73. Ibid., pp. 160-1. The standard biography of Lane, published in 1877, was by his great-nephew, Stanley Lane-Poole. There is a sympathetic account of Lane by A. J. Arberry in his Oriental Essays: Portraits of Seven Scholars (New York: Macmillan Co., 1960), pp. 87-121.

74. Frederick Eden Pargiter, ed., Centenary Volume of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1823-1923 (London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1923) , p. x.

75. Société asiatique: Livre du centenaire, 1822-1922 (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1922), pp. 5-6.

76. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Westostlicher Diwan (1819; reprint ed., Munich: Wilhelm Golmann, 1958), pp. 8-9, 12. Sacy's name is invoked with veneration in Goethe's apparatus for the Diwan.

77. Victor Hugo, Les Orientales, in Oeuvres poétiques, ed. Pierre Albouy (Paris: Gallimard, 1964), 1: 616-18.

78. François-René de Chateaubriand, Oeuvres romanesques et voyages, ed. Maurice Regard (Paris: Gallimard, 1969), 2: 702.

79. See Henri Bordeaux, Voyageurs d'Orient: Des pélerins aux méharistes de Palmyre (Paris: Plon, 1926). I have found useful the theoretical ideas about pilgrims and pilgrimages contained in Victor Turner, Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1974), pp. 166-230.

80. Hassan al-Nouty, Le Proche-Orient dans la littérature française de Nerval à Barrès (Paris: Nizet, 1958), pp. 47-8, 277, 272.

81. Chateaubriand, Oeuvres, 2: 702 and note, 1684, 769-70, 769, 701, 808, 908.

82. Ibid., pp. 1011, 979, 990, 1052.

83. Ibid., p. 1069.

84. Ibid., p. 1031.

85. Ibid., p. 999.

86. Ibid., pp. 1126-27, 1049.

87. Ibid., p. 1137.

88. Ibid., pp. 1148, 1214.

89. Alphonse de Lamartine, Voyage en Orient (1835; reprint ed., Paris: Hachette, 1887), 1: 10, 48-9, 179, 178, 148, 189, 118, 245-6, 251.

90. Ibid., 1: 363; 2: 74-5; 1: 475.

91. Ibid., 2: 92-3.

92. Ibid., 2: 526-7, 533. Two important works on French writers in the Orient are Jean-Marie Carré, Voyageurs et écrivains français en Égypte, 2 vols. (Cairo: Institut français d'archéologie orientale, 1932), and Moënis Taha-Hussein, Le Romantisme français et l'Islam (Beirut: Dar-el-Maeref, 1962).

93. Gérard de Nerval, Les Filles du feu, in Oeuvres, ed. Albert Béguin and Jean Richet (Paris: Gallimard, 1960), 1: 297-8.

94. Mario Praz, The Romantic Agony, trans. Angus Davison (Cleveland, Ohio: World Publishing Co., 1967).

95. Jean Bruneau, Le "Conte Orientale" de Flaubert (Paris: Denoel, 1973), p. 79.

96. These are all considered by Bruneau in ibid.

97. Nerval, Voyage en Orient, in Oeuvres, 2: 68, 194, 96, 342.

98. Ibid., p. 181.

99. Michel Butor, "Travel and Writing," trans. John Powers and K. Lisker, Mosaic 8, no. 1 (Fall 1974): 13.

100. Nerval, Voyage en Orient, p. 628.

101. Ibid., pp. 706, 718.

102. Flaubert in Egypt: A Sensibility on Tour, trans. and ed. Francis Steegmuller (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1973), p. 200. I have also consulted the following texts, in which all Flaubert's "Oriental" material is to be found: Oeuvres complètes de Gustave Flaubert (Paris: Club de l'Honnête homme, 1973), vols. 10, 11; Les Lettres d'Égypte, de Gustave Flaubert, ed. A. Youssef Naaman (Paris: Nizet, 1965); Flaubert, Correspondance, ed. Jean Bruneau (Paris, Gallimard, 1973), 1: 518 ff.

103. Harry Levin, The Gates of Horn: A Study of Five French Realists (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), p. 285.

104. Flaubert in Egypt, pp. 173, 75.

105. Levin, Gates of Horn, p. 271.

106. Flaubert, Catalogue des opinions chic, in Oeuvres, 2: 1019.

107. Flaubert in Egypt, p. 65.

108. Ibid., pp. 220, 130.

109. Flaubert, La Tentation de Saint Antoine, in Oeuvres, 1: 85.

110. See Flaubert, Salammbô, in Oeuvres, 1: 809 ff. See also Maurice Z. Shroder, "On Reading Salammbô," L'Esprit créateur 10, no. 1 (Spring 1970) 24-35.

111. Flaubert in Egypt, pp. 198-9.

112. Foucault, "La Bibliothèque fantastique," in Flaubert, La Tentation de Saint Antoine, pp. 7-33.

113. Flaubert in Egypt, p. 79.

114. Ibid., pp. 211-2.

115. For a discussion of this process see Foucault, Archaeology of Knowledge; also Joseph Ben-David, The Scientist's Role in Society (Englewood Cliffs, N.1.: Prentice-Hall, 1971). See also Edward W. Said, "An Ethics of Language," Diacritics 4, no. 2 (Summer 1974): 28-37.

116. See the invaluable listings in Richard Bevis, Bibliotheca Cisorientalia: An Annotated Checklist of Early English Travel Books on the Near and Middle East (Boston: G. K. Hall & Co., 1973).

117. For discussions of the American travelers see Dorothee Metlitski Finkelstein, Melville's Orienda (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1961), and Franklin Walker, Irreverent Pilgrims: Melville, Browne, and Mark Twain in the Holy Land (Seattle; University of Washington Press, 1974).

118. Alexander William Kinglake, Eothen, or Traces of Travel Brought Home from the East, ed. D. G. Hogarth (1844; reprint ed., London: Henry Frowde, 1906), pp. 25, 68, 241, 220.

119. Flaubert in Egypt, p. 81.

120. Thomas J. Assad, Three Victorian Travellers: Burton, Blunt and Doughty (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1964), p. 5.

121. Richard Burton, Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to al-Madinah and Meccah, ed. Isabel Burton (London: Tylston & Edwards, 1893), 1: 9, 108-10.

122. Richard Burton, "Terminal Essay," in The Book of the Thousand and One Nights (London: Burton Club, 1886), 10: 63-302.

123. Burton, Pilgrimage, 1: 112, 114.