Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Madrasahs In Pakistan

[Untill: 2005]

Main Topic:

Madrasah Reforms and State Power in Pakistan

Compiler (s): Sultan Ali of Suabi

Taxila Studies of Asian Civilizations

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks toALLAH , the Omnipotent, the Omniscient, Who is so kind to mankind and Who enabled me to successfully complete this study, and all the respects for His last andHoly Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon Him) for enlightening me with the essence of faith inALLAH and for all prophets for guiding mankind to the true path of life.

It was indeed a great honor for me, to haveProf. Dr.  Hugh Van Skyhawk, Professor of Comparative Religion, Taxila Institute of Asian Civilization, as my supervisor. Without his deep interest and proper guidance this work would have been impossible. He proved to be very cooperative and kind and unswerving in his commitment to see this manuscript through the press. In addition, the Higher Education Commission (HEC) deserves my special thanks because it provided financial assistance to me for this study.

I offer special thanks to all the staff members of Taxila Institute of Asian Civilization for their full cooperation during my research work and the staff of National Institute of Pakistan Studies library and library of Shiekh Zyed Islamic Center Peshawar University.

I am also thankful to the staff of the Press Information Department for the help they provided me whenever I visited the department in connection with this study.   

I am greatly indebted to my friends, especially, Irfan Ullah, Yousaf Zaman, Ismail Khan, Iftikhar Ahmad, and Jamshed Iqbal for their moral support and for helping me because of my weak computer knowledge.

I am also very grateful to all my friends, relatives and well wishers, whose prayers enabled me to complete my research successfully.

Sultan Ali

ACRONYMS

CIA                                                Central Intelligence Agency

CII                                      Council of Islamic Ideology

CZA                                               Central Zakat Administration

DMs                                               Dīn-i-Madāris* دین المدارس

ECPAK                              Euro Consultant Pakistan

ESRA                                             Education Sector Reform Assistance

FATA                                             Federally Administered Tribal Area

ICRD                                             International Centre for Religion and

Diplomacy

IRI                                      Islamic Research Institute

ISI                                     Inter-Services Intelligence

ITDM                                            Ittehad-i-Tanzīmat Madāris-e-Dīniya*

اتحادتنظیمتِ مدارس دینیا                                                     

JUI                                    Jamiat-i-Ulamai Islam *جمیعت علماءِ اسلام

M.A.                                               Master of Arts

M.phil.                                            Master of Philosophy

ME                                     Middle East

MEPI                                              Middle East Partnership Initiative

MMA                                            Muttahida Majlis-i-Amal * متحده مجلسِعمل

MOU                                              Memorandum of Understanding

MPA                                               Member of Provincial Assembly

MRD                                              Movement for Restoration of Democracy

MRP                                               Madrasah Reforms Project

NGO                                              Non-Government Organization

NIDMP                              National Institute ofDīn-i-Madāris

NOC                                               No Objection Certificate

NRDF        National Research and Development Foundation

NWFP                                            North West Frontier Province

PATA                                             Provincially Administered Tribal Area

PMEBO                             Pakistan Madrasah  Education Board

Ordinance

PNA                                               Pakistan National Alliance

PPP                                     Pakistan People’s Party

PZA                                                Provincial Zakat Administration

RTI                                     Research Triangle Institute

SDPI                                              Sustainable Development Policy Institute

SRO                                               Societies Registration Ordinance

TIUQ                                             Tanzeem-i-Ittehade Ulama-i-Qabail *

تنظیم اتحادِ علماءِ قبائل                                                    

TNSM                                           Tehreek-i-Nifazi-i-Shariati-i-Mohammadi                                                               *تحریکِ نفاظِ شریعتِ محمدی

UGC                                               University Grants Commission

USA                                               United States of America

USAID       United States Agency for International Development

Introduction

The concept of strict division of knowledge between the religious and the non-religious has been a topic of debate throughout the history of Pakistan. But this concept is rarely noted in the history of Islam before colonial rule in the Subcontinent,Madrasahs in the medieval Muslim world produced a considerable number of distinguished scholars and philosophers, who contributed to worldly knowledge as well.Ijtihad or independent thinking was a notable feature of these institutions. However, under colonial rule in the Subcontinent the sphere ofmadrasah education was restricted to the study of strictly religious disciplines, especiallyfiqh or Islamic jurisprudence. Pakistan inherited this dichotomy in the education system from colonial India. However, the educational planners and policy makers have been unable to resolve this problem, which is the core of all evil.

Madrasah education has been a subject of critique in learned circles, and calls to reform regularly come from scholars, academics, and public policy makers and even from theulema themselves. The issue has assumed far greater importance in the light of greater assertion of powers ofmadrasah leaders in state policy matters.Madrasahs assumed greater importance at the international level also because of their alleged involvement in violence and militancy. The 9/11 tragedy in New York strengthened the global perception thatmadrasahs produce extremists and breed terrorism.

However, my interest in the subject is as old as my close association with religious leaders and teachers of traditional religiousmadrasahs since my school days. I have the credit of having studied some of the preliminary books ofmadrasah curriculum at that time and enjoy relatively good intimacy with them.

Statement of the Problem

Madrasah education is becoming increasingly redundant. It has strayed from its purely educational role and become involved in activities contrary to the manifest objectives.Madrasah reforms are widely believed to be the only remedy to overcome this problem.

Objectives of this Study

The government plan to reformmadrasah education is not new. However, the increasing interest of government in the issue is aimed at bringingmadrasahs into the mainstream, in addition to diluting the negative perception of the international community regarding   thereason d'tre ofmadrasahs. Themadrasahs and theulema, however, have always expressed serious reservations regarding the sincerity of government in this matter. While no one, including theulema, is against the idea of reforms, there are, however, wide differences between the government and theulema in its practical implementation. The present study is aimed at an impartial analysis of the present situation in historical perspective and in the light of the perceptions of the different actors involved. This study will help to understand the problem in a realistic way by addressing the following questions:

1. What reforms mean for different actors?

2. Why are reforms necessary indin-i-madaris?

3. How far are government and themadrasahs justified in their approaches?

4. To what extent are the prospects of reforms only rhetoric?

       Reformingmadrasahs and, of course, the whole education system has assumed greater importance in the current modern plural society. As a vital sector of the educational system of Pakistan,madrasahs have great potential for making positive contributions to Muslim society and can play important roles in bringing peace and prosperity to the country.Madrasahs have deep rooted relationship with Muslim society and enjoy the great respect of the common man.Madrasahs and religious elites influence public opinion on different issues of religious and socio-political importance.

In view of the vital role ofmadrasahs in Pakistani society their importance cannot be simply ignored in state policy matters. Therefore, reformingmadrasahs in Pakistan actually means reforming the entire society

Review of Literature

While debate regardingmadrasahs is not a new phenomenon, what is new is the great significance and intensity it has received because of the changed priorities of the super powers in South Asia, in particular, and the world over. The government has been trying since the 1960s to reformmadrasah education and bring it into the mainstream. Different types of studies including books, journals, and articles in newspapers, official documents, and literature published by thesemadrasahs are the sources of information for this study.

Jamal Malik, University of Erfurt, has carried out in-depth study ofmadrasahs and government initiatives during the era of the Ayub Khan and Zia-ul-Haq’s regimes. This is perhaps the first comprehensive study on the subject, which has always remained controversial because of the mutually opposed points of view ofmadrasah leaders and the government. In addition, Malik’s study reveals that theulema of different schools lack a unanimous approach toward this issue, and that these differences are deeply rooted in society because students and teachers ofmadrasahs represent different segments of society. Moreover, Malik thinks that somemadaris preach militant views and are openly involved in politics contrary to their purely educational roles.[1]

The Institute of Policy Studies (IPS), an Islamabad-based organization, has several publications to its credit regarding the issue ofmadrasah reforms. One such study,Din-i-Madaris may Taalim (Urdu) by Saleem Mansoor Khalid, offers the in-depth information on thedin-i-madaris in Pakistan together with an impartial analysis of various reform initiatives. The study contains details of problems faced bydin-i-madaris and honest suggestions to address them.[2] Several other publications and seminars organized by the IPS are aimed at creating motivation among scholars, intellectuals, andulema for reforming religious education.

Dr. Tariq Rehman in his bookDenizens of an Alien World: A Study in Education Inequality and Polarization in Pakistan opines that the present curriculum ofdin-i-madaris is mostly based on a centuries-old syllabus known as theDars-i-Nizami . He writes thatmadrasahs belonging to different schools of thought teach books which refute each other’s beliefs. This promotes sectarianism in the society. He believes that rising militancy inmadaris is the result of the Afghan war. The book also contains information regarding the socio-economic background of students ofdin-i-madaris .[3]

Mohammad Qasim Zaman in his bookThe Ulema in Contemporary Islam , has discussed the reform plans and their failures also. He argued that opposition to the government agenda of reforms exists to varying degrees among theulema. The study contains the dissenting views regarding the issue and the motives behind them.[4]

A leading book on the subject in India by Yoginder Sikand is an invaluable contribution and perhaps unrivalled among the contemporary works. In his bookBastions of Believers: Madrasah and Islamic Education in India , he has discussedmadrasah reforms in historical perspective. This study has valuable information regarding different aspects of reforms. It also carries the detail of reformedmadrasahs in India that can serve as guidance formadrasahs in the entire region.[5] The article "Religious Education and Violence in Pakistan" is highly informative about the role ofmadrasahs in the socio-political life of Pakistan. The author believes that a section of theulema also favors reforms in order to adjust themselves to modern needs. He advises that the religious and social services of themadrasahs should be recognized by the government and they may be assigned due role to ensure peace in the society.[6]

Other contributions by the same author on the same topic can be found in Robert M. Hathaway’s recent anthology. They contain details of recent government initiatives of reforming Islamic education. These writings make valuable suggestions for policy makers in this regard.[7] Several articles by the eminent scholar Mumtaz Ahmad are to be consulted on the topic under study and have been explored for the said purpose.

The reports published by various NGOs, e.g. National Research and Development Foundation (NRDF)[8] , International Center for Religion and Diplomacy (ICRD)[9] and Sustainable Development Policy Institute (SDPI) are also sources of information for the present study.

The publications of the Zakir Hussain Institute, New Dehli, are of great importance on this topic. They contain valuable studies of the relevance ofmadrasah education in the modern world and proposals for reforming this vital sector according to current realities.[10]

The recent study of Saleem H. Ali,Islam and Education: Conflict and Conformity in Pakistan's madrasahs, is one of the latest works onmadrasahs in Pakistan. The author has discussed the various aspects ofmadrasah education, i.e the socio-economic background ofmadrasah students and violence and relevance of this sector in the modern world. The book also carries the detail ofmadrasahs in other countries including India, Bangladesh, Malysia, and Indonesia. It contains certain recommendations formadrasah reforms in Pakistan in the light of successful experiments in these countries in reforming theirmadrasahs. [11]

C. Christine Fair's recent book,The Madrasah Challenge: Militancy and Religious Education in Pakistan, traces the root causes of militancy inmadrasahs and suggests various measures to overcome this problem. The study also discusses the government point of view for reformingmadrasahs and also themadrasah approach to the issue.[12]

Madrasahs are actors in the present study and their points of view are essential for understanding the issue in its real perspective. The monthly JournalMuhhadis of the Islamic Research Council is an authentic source of information for understanding the view points ofmadrasahs regarding government reform initiatives. It carries interviews and comments of leadingulema on the issue and the response to the government agenda of reforms.[13]   The monthly Wafaq-ul-madaris, a journal ofWafaq-ul-madaris al-Arabia [14] a nd Al Haq, a monthly journal of theDarul Uloom Haqqaniya Akora Khattak ,[15] are valuable for understanding themadrasah viewpoint on the subject.

Research Methodology

In this study both historical and descriptive methods have been used. For collection of data primary sources, e.g. field survey, interviews, and official documents have been used. In addition, secondary sources, e.g. books, journals, and articles in newspapers and magazines have been consulted.

Organization of Study

The present research study has been organized into the following five chapters in addition to the introduction and conclusion.

1.Madrasah Education: an Historical Evolution

This chapter contains the evolution ofmadrasahs from the middle ages to the partition of the Subcontinent.

2.Madrasahs in Pakistan: a Profile

This chapter contains the growth ofmadrasahs and the wider role they play in Pakistani society.

3. State andMadrasahs Relations: 1947-1999

In chapter 3 the detail ofmadrasah reforms from 1947 to 1999 has been given. The causes of the failure of these efforts are also discussed.

4. Agenda of Reforms since 2000: An Action against the Status Quo.

This chapter consists of the details of government efforts to reformmadrasahs and their implications since 2000. The role of NGOs has also been mentioned in this connection.

5. Response of madrasahs to the State Sponsored Agenda and Prospects of Reforms: Rebellion against State Power.

This chapter is devoted to the viewpoint of the ulema and religious leaders and the causes responsible for their uncompromising stand. Prospects of reforms have also been discussed here.

The final assessment has been given at the end.

1- Madrasah Education: A Historical Evolution

Introduction

The acquisition and imparting of knowledge is central to Islam. The first revelation insura inAlaq stressed reading and writing in the following words:

Read: In the name of thy Lord who createth,

createth man from a clot.

Read: And thy Lord is the most bounteous, Who teacheth by the pen.

Teacheth man that which he knows not.

According to the HolyQur’an the human being is exalted over all other creatures of God because of his knowledge. The superiority of Adam (A.S.)[16] over the angels was on the very basis of his knowledge of nature. TheQur’an abhors ignorance and illiteracy and calls knowledge as the light and blessing of God. TheQur’an frequently stresses the acquisition of knowledge to overcome and exploit natural resources that have great potential for the welfare of human beings and the need for exploration and exploitation. Besides the HolyQur’an, the Prophet of God (PBUH) has also emphasized the acquisition of knowledge. A large number ofhadiths are found that highlight the importance of the acquisition and imparting of knowledge.

Muhammad (PBUH) declared that the seeking of knowledge is the duty of every Muslim man and women. Muhammad (PBUH) is said to have declared: “The ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr”. In another tradition the seeker of knowledge is regarded as the one who strives in the path of God. Insisting on the need of acquisition of knowledge for all Muslims, the Prophet is reported to have said: “Valueless is the Muslim who is not a teacher or a student”. These and many other traditions reveal that the acquisition and imparting of knowledge is a sacred duty for all Muslims.

In Islamic tradition acquisition of knowledge is not regarded as an end in itself. Rather, its aim is to understand the will of God and lead one’s life according to it. So it is clear that the Islamic concept of knowledge aims at self-actualization. A self-actualizing person is one who becomes all that he is capable of being.[17] According to Maslow[18] , self actualization means the full use of human talent and capabilities. It means actualizing all of God’s bounties to the person. The individual has to put in a lot of effort to use these bounties in the right way and at the right time so that it will lead to self-fortification. Self-fortification refers to the strong fort built within the person that makes him competent, willing, and aware. He can avoid doing wrong things and face successfully the challenges of life[19] .

It is worthy to be noted that the Holy Prophet (PBUH) made no distinctions in acquisition of knowledge. The acquisition of all sorts of knowledge was highly appreciated as he said: “A word of wisdom is the lost property of the true believer. Whenever he finds it, he takes it.”[20]  

In view of the great importance attached to the acquisition and spreading of knowledge, efforts were undertaken to evolve a system of education during early Muslim rule. The system ofmaktab andmadrasah was established for this purpose in the Muslim empire and a network ofmadrasahs expanded with the spread of Islam.

Education during the Time of the Holy Prophet (PBUH)

During theMeccan period, Muhammad (PBUH) was persecuted by his opponents, and hurdles were created to stop him from preaching the religion of Islam. The Prophet, however, carried on his mission despite stiff opposition. In such a situation theDar-e-Arqam proved to be the very first place where the companions of the Prophet (PBUH) gathered and listened to the instructions of the Prophet (PBUH) and got religious training. Similarly,Shabe-e-Abi Talib where the family of the Prophet (PBUH) and his companions were secluded for three years due to the boycott of the Quraish tribe served as a place of teaching and learning for the inmates.

After the migration to Madina, theMasjid-i-Nabavi was the seat of religious education and moral training of the companions of the Prophet (PBUH). Various measures were adopted to make Muslims literate. The release of the prisoners ofBadr in return for making the Muslims literate is unique in history. Encouraging the learning of foreign languages and subjects such as mathematics and medicine by the Prophet (PBUH) was really commendable because such measures were unknown among the Arabs in pre-Islamic times.

About 600 Muslims are believed to have been made literate by the prisoners ofBadr . It is said that there were only seventeen literate people inMacca before the Prophet (PBUH).[21] Since the Prophet (PBUH) equally emphasized the education of men and women, he arranged to teach women in the mosque and allotted them separate time for this purpose.

Some of the wives of the Prophet (PBUH) were literate and the Muslim women visited them to learn from them. The Prophet (PBUH) is said to have appointed a teacher forHafsa , one of his wives, to learn the art of writing.[22] Similarly,Ayesha, another wife of the Prophet (PBUH), memorized a large number ofhadiths and the sahaba (companions of the Prophet) sought her help in resolving religious matters after the demise of the Holy Prophet (PBUH).

Education during the Time of the Rightly Guided Caliphs

During the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphs[23] education was given due attention. The learned among thesahaba were facilitated to promote education among the Muslims. During the time of Abu Bakr (632-634A.D.) Hazrat Ayesha, Hazrat Zaid bin Tabeth, Hazrat Abu Hurara and Abdulla bin Umar were among the great scholars who imparted education to the people.

Hazrat Umar (634-644A.D) encouraged learning and allocated funds from the state treasury for the promotion of education. He also deputed learned men to the newly conquered territories to promote education among the local people. He issued special instructions to his governors for the promotion of education among the people. He used to say that it was the responsibility of the Islamic state to make all subjects literate[24] . Hazrat Usman (644-656 A.D) also gave due attention towards the promotion of knowledge. The HolyQur’an was edited in a single Arabic script during the caliphate of Hazrat Usman, which prevented dissensions among the different tribes of Arabs. He also patronized centers of learning that had been established by Hazrat Umar.

Ali, the fourth caliph (656-661A.D), was himself a great scholar and remained chiefqazi during the rule of the previous caliphs. Although great political disturbances did not allow him to make systematic efforts for the promotion of education, he framed the principles of Arabic grammar to facilitate non-Arabs to learn the Arabic language.[25]

The Birth of fiqh and the Emergence of the ulema as a Professional Class

During the lifetime of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) his interpretation of theQur’an was final. But after the demise of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) and pious caliphs this duty was assumed byimams [26] . Theseimams madeijtihad and interpreted theQur’an and sunnah according to their own understanding, eachimam having his own followers. Thus, different schools of thought calledmazahib came into being. The followers of eachmazhab made efforts to propagate their thoughts, which highly contributed to Muslim education. The followers of eachmazhab establishedmadrasahs to teach their ownfiqh [27] , or Islamic jurisprudence.

Local conditions played an important role in the development of differentfiqh schools because Islam had spread from Madina to Syria, Egypt, Iran and Iraq, and to Africa. The social conditions and political needs of these areas were totally different from those of the egalitarian tribal society of Arabia. Therefore, local socio-political features are reflected in thefiqh developed in their respective regions. Rules of thesefiqh continued to be taught in themadrasahs in India up to the present day.[28]

In earlier times, anyone who possessed knowledge in any field or subject was considered to be analim or scholar. Until the third Islamic century theulema were not clearly identified as a distinct social group because there were no systematic rules relating to the profession of scholarship. In the third century a distinct class of professionalulema emerged, who earned their livelihood from teaching and scholarship. This must be seen in the wider context of the development of rival schools offiqh with elaborate rules governing inclusions and membership and complex linguistic skills and sartorial codes separating thefuqaha or religious scholar from the common mass of Muslims. The nexus between thefuqaha and ruling elites further strengthened the notion of a separate class of religious specialists.

The founders offiqh schools were very flexible in their approaches, never claimed to be infallible, and warned their disciples not to blindly accept their rulings. Instead, they should follow the instruction of the divine text in matters in which their opinions might inadvertently violate theQur’an and sunnah . The immediate followers of the founder of eachmazhab followed these principles and some of the earlyfuqaha did not hesitate to overrule the opinions of their own teachers if they found them not to be in accordance with theQur’an andhadith.

However, this tradition did not last for long. The gradual codification offiqh leads to the contracting of possibilities ofijtehad . It rendered Islamic jurisprudence unable to meet the demands of changing conditions. This codified form offiqh is a part of the curriculum of Indian and Pakistanimadrasahs even today. The stress on the centrality offiqh went along with the crystallization of a class offuqaha, specializing in the details of jurisprudence. Quranic verses exhorting believers to seek the opinion of the knowledgeable were interpreted to suggest the need for Muslims to consult experts infiqh on every matter, an insistence that is repeated byulema ofmadrasahs even today.Fiqh thus came to be regarded as the highest form of knowledge while the rest came to be neglected or degraded. This helped bolster the claims offuqaha , experts in Islamic jurisprudence, as representative of what they claimed to be authentic Islamic tradition.[29]