Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

INTRODUCTION

Perhaps it may have happened to you, and if not, you may still visualize it: Someone lives on your street or in your neighborhood for years. You see him at least once a day and habitually nod to him as you pass by. Years pass by in this manner till, one day, you accidentally get an opportunity to sit down with him and become familiar with his ideas, views and feelings, his likes and dislikes. You are amazed at what you have come to know about him. You never imagined or guessed that he might be as you found him and never thought that he was what you later discovered him to be.

After that, every time you see him, his face, somehow, appears to you to be different. Not only this, your entire attitude towards him is altered. His personality assumes a new meaning and a new depth, and you develop respect for him in your heart, as if he were a person other than the one you thought you knew for years. You feel as if you have discovered a new world.

My experience was similar to such an analogy with regard toNahjul-Balagha . Since the years of my childhood, I was familiar with the title of this book, and I could distinguish it from other books on the shelves in my father's library. Years later, during my studies, first at the theological school of Mashhad, and later at Qum, when I was finishing the last stages of the preliminary education in theology calledsutuh , during all those days, I kept hearing the titleNahjul-Balagha more often than that of any other book after the Qur’an. Some of its sermons on piety I had heard so many times that I almost remembered them by heart. Nevertheless, I must admit, like all my colleagues at the theological seminary (hawza `ilmiyya ), I was quite ignorant of the world ofNahjul-Balagha . We had met as strangers and passed by each other in the manner of strangers. This went on till the summer of 1325 (1946) when, in order to escape the heat of Qum, I went to Isfahan. A trivial incident brought me into contact with a person who took my hand and led me somehow into the world ofNahjul-Balagha .

When this happened, I realized that till then, I knew little about this book. Later, I wished that I would also find someone who would introduce me to the world of the Qur’an. Since then, the image ofNahjul-Balagha was transformed in my eyes. I became fond of it, and gradually my fondness grew into love. It was now a different book from the one which I had known till that moment. I felt as if I had discovered an entirely new world. Sheikh Muhammed 'Abdo, the formermufti of Egypt who edited and publishedNahjul-Balagha with a brief commentary, introducing this book to the Egyptians for the first time, says that he had no knowledge of this book till he undertook its study far from home in a distant land.

He was struck with amazement and felt as if he had discovered a precious treasure trove. He, thereupon, immediately decided to publish and introduce it to the Arab public. The unfamiliarity of a Sunni scholar withNahjul-Balagha is not surprising; what is surprising is thatNahjul-Balagha should be a stranger and alien in its own homeland, among the Shi`a (followers) of Ali (A.S) , and that in the Shi`i theological schools as well, in the same way as Ali (A.S)  himself has remained isolated, a stranger in his own land. Evidently, if the content and ideas of a book, or if the feelings and emotions of a person, do not harmonize with the mentality of a people, that book/person practically remains isolated like a stranger in an alien world, even though the name of such a person/book may be mentioned with great respect and admiration.

We, theology students, must admit our estrangement fromNahjul-Balagha . We have built a mental world of our own which is alien to the world ofNahjul-Balagha . As I write this Preface, I cannot abstain from recalling with sorrow the memory of that great man who introduced me for the first time to the world ofNahjul-Balagha and whose acquaintance I treasure as one of the most precious experiences of my life, something which I would not exchange for anything else. Neither day nor night passes without my remembering him or mentioning him with gratitude. I daresay that he was a divine scholar ('alim rabbani ) in the true sense of the word, although I dare not claim that I was A a learner of the path of deliverance (muta'allim 'ala sabil al-najat ). [1] I remember that whenever I met him, I was always reminded of the following poetry of [the renown Persian poet] Sa`di:

The devout, the ascetic, and the Subi,

Are all toddlers on the path;

If there is any mature man,

It is none other than the 'alim rabbani.

He was afaqih [2] , a philosopher, a man of letters and a physician, all at the same time. He was well versed infiqh (jurisprudence), philosophy, Arabic and Persian literature as well as in the traditional medicine. And he was considered a specialist of the first order in some of these fields. He was a masterly teacher ofal-Qanun , the treatise of ibn Sina in medicine, which does not find a teacher these days. Many scholars of the theology school attended his lessons. Yet it was not possible for him to confine himself to one single field, and his spirit revolted against any kind of restrictions. Of his lectures, the most that interested him were those onNahjul-Balagha which threw him into ecstasy. It seemed as ifNahjul-Balagha had opened its wings and he, having mounted them, was taken on a journey through strange worlds beyond our reach.

It was evident that he lived onNahjul-Balagha ; he lived it and breathed with it. His spirit was united with this book; his pulse throbbed and his heart beat in harmony withNahjul-Balagha . Its sentences were always on his lips and their meanings engraved upon his heart. When he quoted its passages, tears would flow from his eyes, soaking his gray beard. During the lessons, his encounter with and involvement inNahjul-Balagha would make him totally oblivious of his surroundings. It was a very educative as well as an attractive spectacle. Listening to the language of the heart from someone whose great heart is full of love and wisdom has altogether a different effect and attraction. He was a living example of the saints of the bygone days. These words of Ali (A.S)  fully apply to him:

A Had it not been for the fact that Providence had decreed the years of their life, the passionate yearning for Divine rewards and fear of chastisement would not have permitted their souls to remain in their bodies even for a moment. Their realization of the greatness of the Creator has made everything besides Him insignificant in their eyes. [3]

This refined man of letters, the speculative philosopher, the greatfaqih , the adept man of medicine and the excellent master of theology was the late Hajj Mirza Ali Aqa al-Shirazi al-Isfahani, sanctified by Allah, a man of truth and wisdom who had attained deliverance from the finite self and selfhood and had merged with the Infinite Truth.

In spite of his sublime scholarly status and eminent social status, his sense of commitment to the society and burning love for Imam al-Husain (–) compelled him to deliver sermons from theminbar . His sermons, since they came from the heart, had a deep effect on the hearts of his listeners. Whenever he visited Qum, the scholars of the first rank would persuade him to deliver his sermons from theminbar . [4] His sermons were charged with a passionate purity and sincerity that rendered them profoundly effective. They were not just words to be heard but a spiritual state to be experienced.

He, however, refrained from leading congregational prayers. One year, during the holy month of Ramadan, after a great deal of persuasion, he accepted to lead the prayers atMadrasat al-Sadr for that month. In spite of the fact that he did not come regularly and refused to stick to any regular schedule, unprecedented crowds of people came to attend the prayers led by him. I heard that such strength declined in thejama`at in the neighborhood mosques and he, too, discontinued.

As far as I know, the people of Isfahan generally knew him in person and liked him. He was also loved at the theology school of Qum. The `ulma ' of Qum would eagerly set out to see him at the news of his arrival in the city. Like all other restrictions, he also refused to be bound by the conditions set for having admirers and followers. May Allah shower His infinite mercy upon him and lodge him in the company of Hisawliya ' on the Day of Resurrection.

Despite all his merits, I do not claim that he was familiar with all the worlds whichNahjul-Balagha embraces or that he had set his foot in all the domains encompassed by it. He had explored only a portion of its realms, and that a portion ofNahjul-Balagha had been incarnated in his personality. The universe ofNahjul-Balagha includes numerous worlds: the world ofzuhd (renunciation of worldly pleasures) andtaqwa (piety), the world of `ibada (worship, devotion) and 'irfan (mystic knowledge), the world ofhikma (wisdom) and philosophy, the world of moral preaching and guidance, the world of eschatology (malahim ) and mysteries (mughayyabat ), the world of politics and social responsibilities, the world of heroism and bravery, etc., too many worlds to be conquered by any single individual. Hajj Mirza Ali Aqa al-Shirazi had explored only a portion of this great ocean and knew it well.

NAHJUL-BALAGHA AND PRESENT-DAYS ISLAMIC SOCIETY

The alienation fromNahjul-Balagha was not confined to me or to others like me. It pervaded through the Islamic society. Those who understood this book, their knowledge did not go beyond the translation of its words and the explanatory notes for its sentences. The spirit and the content of the book were hidden from the eyes of everyone. Only lately, it may be said, has the Islamic world begun to exploreNahjul-Balagha . In other words,Nahjul-Balagha has just started its conquest of the Muslim world.

What is surprising is that one part ofNahjul-Balagha , in Shi`ite Iran as well as in Arab countries, was first discovered either by atheists or non-Muslim theists who revealed the greatness of the book to the Muslims. Of course, the purpose of most or all of them was to utilizeNahjul-Balagha of Ali (A.S)  for justifying and confirming their own social views. But the outcome was exactly the opposite of what they had desired. This is so because, for the first time, the Muslims have realized that the views expressed grandiloquently by others have nothing new to offer, and that they cannot surpass what is said inNahjul-Balagha of Ali (A.S)  or translated into action through the conduct (sira ) of Ali (A.S)  and his disciples such as Salman al-Farisi, Abu Tharr and `Ammar. The outcome was that instead of supporting the pretentious views of those who wished to exploitNahjul-Balagha , Ali (A.S)  and his book defeated their purpose. Nevertheless, it must be accepted that before this had taken place, most of us had little knowledge ofNahjul-Balagha, and it hardly went beyond appreciation of few sermons about the virtues of piety and abstinence. Nobody had yet recognized the significance of the valuable epistle of Master Ali (A.S)  to Malik al-Ashtar al-Nakh`i; nobody had paid any attention to it.

As stated in the first and second chapters of this book,Nahjul-Balagha is a collection of sermons, precepts, epistles and aphorisms of Ali (A.S)  compiled by Sayyid al-Sharif al-Radhi almost a thousand years ago. However, neither the recorded words of Master Ali (A.S)  are confined to those collected by Sayyid al-Radhi, nor was he the only man to compile the sayings of Amir al-Mu’minin. Al-Mas`udi, who lived a hundred years before Sayyid al-Radhi, in the second volume of his workMuruj al-Thahab , writes the following: A At present, there are over 480 sermons of Ali (A.S)  in the hands of the people, whereas the total number of sermons included by Sayyid al-Radhi in his collection is only 239.

There are, at present, two kinds of work that must be accomplished with respect toNahjul-Balagha , so that Ali’s thought and views on various important issues expressed inNahjul-Balagha , which are still relevant and are direly needed by the present-day Islamic society, may be brought to light. The second kind of work required in relation toNahjul-Balagha is researching the sources (isnad ) and the documents relevant to its contents. Fortunately, we hear that Muslim scholars in various parts of the Islamic world are devoting themselves to undertaking both of these important tasks.

This book is a collection of a series of articles which originally appeared in the journalMaktab-e-Islam during from 1351 - 52 (1972-73), now presented to the learned readers in the form of the present book. Formerly, I had delivered five lectures on this topic at theHusainiyyah Irshad . [5] Later, I took up with the idea of writing a series of articles to deal with the subject in greater detail.

From the outset, when I chose to call it "Sayri dar Nahjul-Balagha " ( A A Journey intoNahjul-Balagha ), I was aware that my attempt would not deserve to be called more than a journey, or a short trip. This work, by no means, deserves to be called a research. I neither had the time nor the opportunity to conduct a research, nor did I consider myself fit for undertaking such a task. Moreover, a profound and comprehensive research study of the contents ofNahjul-Balagha , an exploration of the ideology of Ali (A.S) , and, besides, a research about documenting its contents, is the job of a group, not of a single individual. But, as it is said, that which cannot be attained in its entirety is not to be abandoned entirely [6]. And since humble attempts open the way for great tasks, I embarked upon my journey. Unfortunately, even this journey was not completed. The project that I had prepared for, and which the reader shall find mentioned in the third chapter, remained incomplete because of many preoccupations. I do not know if I will ever get the opportunity to continue my journey throughNahjul-Balagha . But it is my great desire to be able to do so.

LITERARY MARVEL

 Nahjul-Balagha is a magnificent collection of the inimitable sermons, invocations (du'a s), wills or pieces of advice, epistles and aphorisms of Amir al-Mu’minin, Imam Ali ibn Abu Talib (A.S), compiled by Sayyid al-Sharif al-Radhi (may Allah be pleased with him) about one thousand years ago. Time and years have not only failed to diminish the impressive freshness of this work but have, instead, added constantly to its value as new concepts and ideas have emerged therefrom.

Ali (A.S)  was undoubtedly a man of eloquence. He delivered a large number of speeches that became famous. Likewise, numerous sayings containing philosophical wisdom were heard from him. He wrote many letters, especially during the days of his caliphate, which his admirers recorded and preserved with remarkable interest and zeal. Al-Mas`udi (d. 346/955-6 A.H.), who lived almost a hundred years before Sayyid al-Radhi (d. 406/1115 A.H.), in the second volume of his book titledMuruj al-Thahab , under the heading "Fi thikr luma' min kalamih, wa akhbarih, wa zuhdih , says the following:

That which has been preserved by people of Ali’s sermons, delivered on various occasions, exceeds 480 in number. Ali (A.S)  used to deliver his extempore sermons without any prior preparation. The people recorded [7] his words and practically derived benefit from them. [8]

The testimony of an informed researcher and scholar like al-Mas`udi bears out the large number of Ali’s speeches that were extant during his time. Only 239 of these have been handed down to us inNahjul-Balagha , whereas their number, as mentioned by al-Mas`udi, was more than 480.

Moreover, al-Mas`udi informs us about the extraordinary dedication and ardor of various groups of people in recording and preserving Ali’s words.

SAYYID AL-RADHI ANDNAHJUL-BALAGHA

Sayyid al-Sharif al-Radhi, or Sayyid al-Radhi, as he is commonly called, was an ardent admirer of Ali’s speeches. He was a scholar, a poet and a man of cultivated taste. Al-Tha`alibi, his contemporary, says the following about him:

He is the most remarkable man among his contemporary and the noblest amongst the Sayyids of Iraq. Family and descent aside, he is fully adorned and endowed with literary excellence. He is the most remarkable poet among the descendants of Abu Talib, though there are many distinguished poets among them. To say that of all the Quraish no poet could ever surpass him would not be an exaggeration. [9]

It was on account of Sayyid al-Radhi’s earnest love for literature in general, and his admiration of Ali’s discourses in particular, that his interest was mainly literary in compiling Ali’s words. Consequently, he paid a greater attention to those passages which were more prominent from the literary point of view. This was the reason why he named his anthology "Nahjul-Balagha " [10] which means the A path of eloquence, giving little importance to mentioning his sources, a point rarely ignored by compilers ofhadith (traditions). Only at times does he casually mention the name of a certain book from which a particular sermon or epistle has been cited. In a book of history orhadith , it is of primary importance that the sources be precisely identified; otherwise, little credence can be given to it. The value of a literary masterpiece, however, lies in its intrinsic beauty, subtlety, elegance and depth. Meanwhile, it is not possible to assert that Sayyid al-Radhi was entirely oblivious of the historical value and other dimensions of this sacred work, or that his attention was exclusively absorbed by its literary qualities.

Fortunately, after Sayyid al-Radhi, others took up the task of collecting theisnad ofNahjul-Balagha . Perhaps the most comprehensive book in this regard isNahj al-Sa`ada fi Mustadrak Nahjul-Balagha by Muhammed Baqir al-Mahmudi, a distinguished Shi`a scholar of Iraq. In this valuable book, all of Ali's extant speeches, sermons, decrees, epistles, supplications and sayings have been collected. It includesNahjul-Balagha and other discourses which were not incorporated by Sayyid al-Radhi or were unavailable to him. Apparently, except for some aphorisms, the original sources of all the contents ofNahjul-Balagha have been accounted for. [11]

It should be mentioned that Sayyid al-Radhi was not the only man to compile a collection of Ali's utterances; others, too, have compiled various books with different titles in this field. The most famous of them isGhurar al-Hikam wa Durar al-Kalim by al-Amudi on which Muhaqqiq [verifier] Jamal al-Din al-Khunsari has written a commentary in Persian which has been recently printed by the University of Tehran through the efforts of the eminent scholar Mir Jalal al-Din, the al-Urumawi traditionist.

Ali al-Jundi, dean of the faculty of sciences at the Cairo University, in the Introduction to the book titledAli ibn Abu Talib (A.S) : Shi`ruh wa Hikam cites a number of these collections some of which have not yet appeared in print and still exist as manuscripts. These are:

1.Dustur Ma`alim al-Hikam by al-Quda'i, the author ofAl-Khutat ;

2.Nathr al-La’a li’ ; this book has been translated and published by a Russian Orientalist in one bulky volume.

3.Hikam Sayyidina Ali (A.S)   : A manuscript of this book exists in the Egyptian library, Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyya.

TWO DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS

Since the earliest times, two distinct merits have been recognized as distinguishing Ali's discourses: Firstly, literary elegance (fasaaha ) and eloquence (balaagha ) ; secondly, their characteristic multi-dimensional nature. Any of these two qualities suffices for regarding Ali's words as valuable, but the combination of these two qualities (i.e. matchless eloquence, literary elegance and their multi-dimensional natureCin that they deal with diverse and occasionally incompatible spheres of life) has made it almost miraculous. For this reason, Ali's speech occupies a position in-between the speech of the human being and the Word of Allah. Indeed, it has been said of it that it is above the speech of beings and below the Word of the Creator. [12]

LITERARY BEAUTY AND ELEGANCE

This aspect ofNahjul-Balagha requires no introduction. Any reader of a cultivated literary taste, one capable of appreciating linguistic elegance and charm, surely realizes it. Basically, beauty is something perceived and experienced and not described or defined.Nahjul-Balagha , even after nearly fourteen centuries, has retained the same attractiveness, freshness, charm and beauty for the present-day audience that it provided the people of earlier days. Here, we do not intend to give an elaborate proof of this claim. Nevertheless, as a part of our discourse, we shall briefly describe the marvellous power of the words of Ali (A.S)  in moving hearts and infusing them with the feeling of wonder. We shall start with Ali's own times and follow the effect of his discourses through the changes and variations in taste, outlook and mode of thought during different successive ages up to the present day.

The companions of Ali (A.S) , particularly those who had a taste for language and literary grace, greatly admired him as an orator. Abdullah ibn `Abbas is one of them. He, as al-Jahiz points out in hisAl-Bayan wal-Tbyin , [13] was a powerful orator. He did not conceal his passion for listening to Ali (A.S)  speak or the enjoyment he derived from it. Once, when Ali (A.S)  was delivering his famous sermon calledal-Shaqshaqiyya , [14] ibn `Abbas was also present. While Ali (A.S)  was speaking, an ordinary man from Kufa handed him a piece of paper containing some questions, thus causing Ali (A.S)  to discontinue his speech. Having read the sheet of paper, Ali (A.S)  did not continue his speech in spite of Ibn `Abbas urging him to do so. Ibn Abbas later expressed his deep regret on that occasion, saying, A Never in my life was I ever so sorry for interrupting a speech as I was for interrupting this sermon. [15]

Referring to a certain letter that Ali (A.S)  had written to Ibn `Abbas, the latter used to say, A Except for the speech of the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H. and His Household) , I did not derive so much benefit from any utterance as I did from this one. [16]

Mu`awiyah ibn Abu Sufyan, Ali’s most contumacious enemy, also acknowledged the Imam’s extra-ordinary eloquence. When Muhqin ibn Abu Muhqin forsook Ali (A.S)  and joined Mu`awiyah, in order to please Mu`awiyah, whose heart surged with ill-will and bitterness towards Ali (A.S) , he told him, A I have left the dumbest of men and come to you. The flagrancy of this kind of flattery was so obvious that Mu`awiyah himself reproached him saying: >Woe unto you! Do you really call Ali (A.S)  the dumbest of men?! Quraish knew nothing about eloquence before him. It was he who taught them the art of eloquence.

Effect of Ali’s Oratory

Those who heard Ali (A.S)  speaking from theminbar were very much affected by his words. His sermons made hearts tremble and drew tears from the eyes. Even today, who can hear or read Ali’s sermons without a tremor passing through his heart? Sayyid al-Radhi, after narrating Ali’s famous sermonal-Gharra' , [17] says the following: A As Ali (A.S)  delivered his sermon, tears flowed from the eyes of the listeners and hearts quivered with emotion.

Hammam ibn Shurayh, one of Ali’s companions, was a man with a heart full of love for Allah and a soul burning with spiritual fire. At one time, he requested Ali (A.S)  to describe the qualities of the pious and the God-fearing. Ali (A.S) , on the one hand, did not want to turn down his request and, on the other, he was concerned that Hammam might not be able to bear what Ali (A.S)  would say. He, therefore, evaded this request, giving only a perfunctory description of piety and the pious. Hammam was not only dissatisfied with this, his eagerness was heightened, so he beseeched Ali (A.S)  to speak with greater elaboration. Ali (A.S)  commenced his famous sermon and began to describe the characteristics of the truly pious. He enumerated about one hundred and five [18] qualities of such human beings and went on to describe more. But as Ali’s words flowed in fiery sequence, Hammam was carried away to the very extremes of ecstasy. His heart throbbed terribly and his spirit was driven to the furthermost limits of emotion. It advanced in eagerness like a restless bird trying to break out of its cage. Suddenly, there was a terrible cry and the audience turned around to find out that it came from no other man than Hammam himself. Approaching him, they found out that his soul had already left its earthly abode to embrace an everlasting life. When this happened, Ali’s remark, which carried both eulogy and regret, was: A I feared this would happen. Strange, yet this is how effective admonition affects sensitive hearts. [19] This is an example of the kind of influence which Ali’s sermons had over the minds and the hearts of his contemporaries.

VIEWS OF ANCIENT AND MODERN SCHOLARS

After the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H. and His Household) , Ali (A.S)  alone has the distinction of being one whose speeches and sayings were recorded and preserved by the people with particular care.

Ibn Abul-Hadid quotes 'Abdul-Hamid al-Katib, the great master of Arabic prose [20] who lived during the early part of the second Hijri century, as saying, A I learned by heart seventy sermons of Ali (A.S) , and from that time onwards, my mind always overflowed [ with inspiration ].

Ali al-Jundi also relates that when Abdul-Hamid was asked about what had helped him most in attaining literary excellence, he replied, A Memorizing the discourses of the >bald one’. [21]

Throughout the Islamic history, the name of Abdul-Rahman ibn Nubatah is proverbial for oratory among the Arabs. He acknowledges that his intellectual and artistic attainments are indebted to Ali (A.S) Ibn Abul-Hadid quotes him as saying: A I committed to memory about a hundred discourses of Ali (A.S)  ; since then, this has served me as an inexhaustible treasure [of inspiration].

Al-Jahiz was a celebrated literary genius of the early third century of the Hijra, and his bookAl-Bayan wal-Tbyin is regarded as one of the four main classics of Arabic literature [22]. Often, in his book, he expresses his great wonder and immense admiration for Ali’s discourses. From his remarks, it is evident that a large number of Ali’s sermons were commonly known to the people of his day. In the first volume of hisAl-Bayan wal-Tbyin , [23] after mentioning that some people praise precision in speech or prefer silence and disapprove profusion, al-Jahiz writes the following: A The profusion of speech that has been regarded with disapproval is futile talk, not so what is fruitful and illuminating; otherwise, Ali ibn Abu Talib (A.S) and Abdullah ibn `Abbas were men of prolific speech.

In the same volume of his work, he quotes this famous sentence of Ali (A.S)  : [24] A The value of a man lies in what he has mastered. [25]

Al Jahiz then devotes half a page to expressing his admiration for this sentence and writes further:

A If our book did not contain anything but this sentence, it would suffice it. The best speech is one the little of which makes you dispense with much of it, one in which the meanings are not concealed within words but stand out.

Then he remarks saying, A It appears as if Allah the Almighty has enveloped it with His glory and covered it with the light of wisdom proportionate to the piety andtaqwa of its speaker.

Al-Jahiz, in the same work, where he discusses the oratory of Sasa'ah ibn Suhan al-'Abdi [26], says the following: A No greater proof of his excellence as an orator is required than the fact that Ali (A.S)  occasionally came to him and asked him to deliver a speech.

Sayyid al-Radhi's following remarks in appreciation and praise of the speech of Imam Ali (A.S)  are famous: A Amir al-Mu'minin Ali (A.S)  was the reservoir and fountainhead of eloquence which derived its principles from his speeches and revealed its secrets through him. Every orator of mark tried to imitate him and every preacher learned from him the art of eloquence. Nevertheless, others lagged far behind him while he excelled them all. His speech (alone) bears the imprint of Divine Wisdom and the fragrance of the Prophet’s eloquence.

Ibn Abul-Hadid is a Mu`tazilite scholar of the 7th . Hijri/13th A.D. century. He was a masterly writer and an adept poet, and, as we know, a man who adored Ali’s discourses. Accordingly, he expressed his profound admiration for Ali (A.S)  repeatedly throughout his book. In the Introduction to his famous commentary onNahjul-Balagha , he writes the following: A Truly have Ali’s discourse been regarded as inferior only to that of the Creator and superior to that of all creatures. All people have learned the arts of oration and writing from him. Suffices to say that people have not recorded even one-tenth of one-twentieth of the speech of any other companion of the Prophet (P.B.U.H. and His Household) , of what they recorded and preserved of Ali’s discourses, although there were many eloquent persons among them.

Again, it is sufficient that a man such as al-Jahiz has so much praise for Ali (A.S)  in his bookAl-Bayan wa al-Tabyin .

Ibn Abul-Hadid, in the fourth volume of his commentary, says the following about Imam Ali’s letter to Abdullah ibn `Abbas (written after the fall of Egypt to Mu`awiyah's forces and the martyrdom of Muhammed ibn Abu Bakr, a letter in which Ali [–] breaks the news of this disaster to Abdullah, who was then in Basra) : [27]

A Look how eloquence has given its reins into the hands of this man and is docile to his every signal! Observe the wonderful order of words coming one after the other to bow in his presence, or gushing like a spring that flows effortlessly out of the ground. Praise to Allah! An Arab youth grows up in a town like Mecca, one who has never met any sage or philosopher, yet his discourses have surpassed those of Plato and Aristotle in eloquence and profundity. He has no discourse with men of wisdom, yet he has surpassed Socrates. He has not grown up among warriors and heroes but amongst traders and merchants, for the people of Mecca were not a warrior nation but traders, yet he emerges as the greatest of all warriors of supreme courage who have ever walked on the face of earth. Khalili ibn Ahmed [al-Farahidi, the renown linguist] was asked once: A Of Ali (A.S) , Bastam, and `Anbasah, who was the most courageous? Replied he, A Bastam and `Anbasah should be compared with other men; Ali (A.S)  was superior to human beings. He came from the Quraish who were not the foremost in eloquence, for the most eloquent among Arabs were Banu Jurham, although they were not famous for wisdom or wit. Yet Ali (A.S)  surpassed even Sahban ibn Wa’il and Qays ibn Sa`dah in eloquence.

Modern Perspectives

During the fourteen centuries that have passed since Ali’s times, the world has seen innumerable changes in language, culture and taste. One may be led to think that Ali’s discourses, although they might have invoked the adoration of the ancient ones, may not suit the modern taste. But one would be surprised to learn that such is not the case at all. From the point of view of literary form and content, Ali’s discourses have the rare quality of transcending the limits imposed by time and place. That Ali’s discourses are universal in their appeal to men of all times we shall discuss later. Here, after quoting the views of classical writers, we shall quote the relevant views expressed by our contemporaries.

The late Sheikh Muhammed `Abdo, formerly Mufti of Egypt, is a man who came to knowNahjul-Balagha by accident. This preliminary acquaintance grew into a passionate love for the sacred book, leading him into writing a commentary on it. It also prompted him to undertake making it popular among the Arab youths. In the Preface to his commentary, he says the following: A Among all those who speak the Arabic language, there is not a single man who does not believe that Ali’s discourses, after the Qur’an and theahadith of the Prophet (P.B.U.H. and His Household) , are the most noble, the most eloquent, the most profound and the most comprehensive.

Ali al-Jundi, once Dean of the Faculty of Sciences at the Cairo University, in his book titledAli ibn Abu Talib: Shi`ruhu wa Hikamuh , writing about Ali’s prose saying the following: A A certain musical rhythm which moves the innermost depths of the soul is characteristic of these discourses. The phrases are so rhymed that it can be called poetic prose.

He then quotes Qudamah ibn Ja`fer as saying: A Some have shown mastery in short sayings and others in long discourses, but Ali (A.S)  has surpassed all others in both of these, even as he has surpassed them in other merits as well.

Taha Husain, the renown Egyptian writer, in his bookAli wa Banuh (Ali [–] and His Sons), recounts the story of a particular man during the Battle of al-Jamal. The man is in doubt as to which of the two sides is on the right track. He says to himself, A How is it possible that such personalities like Talhah and al-Zubayr should be at fault? He informs Ali (A.S)  of his dilemma and asks him whether it is possible that such great personalities and men of established repute should be in error. Ali (A.S)  answers him in the following: A You are seriously mistaken and have reversed the measure! Truth and falsehood are not measured by the worth of individuals. First, find out what is true and what is false, then you will see who stands by the truth and who is with falsehood.

What Ali (A.S)  means is: A You have reversed your measuring criteria. Truth and falsehood are not measured by the nobility of birth or by how base and lowly one’s birth is. Instead of regarding truth and falsehood as the measure of nobility and meanness, you prejudge persons by your own pre-conceived notions of nobility and meanness. Reverse your approach. First of all, find out the truth itself, then you will be able to recognize who are truthful. Find out what falsehood is, then you will identify those who are wrong. lt is not significant which person stands by the truth and which one sides with falsehood.

After quoting Ali’s above-mentioned reply, Taha Husain says the following: A Next to the Revealed Word of Allah, I have never seen a more glorious and admirably expressed view than this reply of Ali (A.S) .

Shakib Arsalan, nicknamed "Amir al-Bayan " (the master of clear speech), is another celebrated writer. Once in a gathering held in his honor in Egypt, a speaker mounted the rostrum and, in the course of his speech, remarked saying, A There are two individuals in the history of Islam each one of whom can truly be calledAmir al-Bayan : one is Ali ibn Abu Talib (A.S) and the other is Shakib [Arsalan]. It was then that Shakib Arsalan (1871-1946) felt very irritated. He left his seat and walked to the rostrum. Deploring the comparison which his friend had just made between Ali (A.S)  and himself, he said: A What comparison can there be between Ali (A.S)  and me?! I am not worth to be compared even to the strap of Ali’s sandals! [28]

In the Introduction to the book titledImam Ali (A.S)   by George Jurdaq, a Lebanese Christian writer, Michael Na`imah, also a Lebanese Christian writer, says the following: A Ali (A.S)  was not only a champion on the battlefield but also a hero inall other fields: in the sincerity of heart, in the purity of conscience, in the spell-binding magic of speech, in true humanitarianism, in the fineness and warmth of faith, in the height of tranquility, in the readiness to help the oppressed and the wronged, and in total submission to the truth wherever it may be and whichever form it assumes. He was a hero inall these fields.

I do not intend to quote more from the writings of those who paid tributes to Ali (A.S) , for the above-quoted remarks are sufficient to prove my point. One who praises Ali (A.S)  extols his own merit for:

He who admires the Sun’s brilliance extols himself:

My two eyes are bright and my vision is not clouded.

I conclude my discourse with Ali’s own statement about himself. One day, one of his companions attempted to deliver a speech. He could not; he found himself tongue-tied. Ali (A.S)  said to him: A You should know that the tongue is a part of man and under the command of his mind. If the mind lacks stimulation and refuses to budge, his tongue will not assist him. However, if the mind is ready, his speech will not give him a respite. Indeed, we (Ahl al-Bayt ) are the masters of (the domain of) speech. In us are sunk its roots and over us are hung its branches. [29]

Al Jahiz, in theal-Bayan wa al-tabyin , relates from Abdullah ibn al-Hasan ibn Ali (A.S)  that Ali (A.S)  once said: A We (Ahl al-Bayt ) are superior to others in five qualities: eloquence, good looks, forgiveness, courage, and popularity with women! [30]

Now, we shall take up another characteristic of Ali’s discourses which, in fact, is the main theme of this book, that is, multi-dimensionality.

NAHJUL-BALAGHA AMONG LITERARY CLASSICS

Most nations possess certain literary works which are regarded as A masterpieces or A classics. Here we shall limit our discussion to the classics of Arabic and Persian literature whose merits are more or less perceptible by us, leaving the other classics of the ancient world, of Greece and Rome and so on, and the masterpieces of the modern age from Italy, England, France and other countries to be discussed and evaluated by those who are familiar with them and are qualified to discuss them.

Of course, an accurate judgment about the classics of Arabic and Persian is possible only for scholars who have specialized in classical literature. But it is an accepted fact that everyone of these masterpieces is great only in a particular aspect, not in each and every aspect. To be more precise, every one of the authors of these classics displayed his mastery only in a single, specific field to which his ingenuity was confined. Occasionally, if one left his special field to tread other grounds, he failed miserably.

In Persian, there are numerous masterpieces in mysticalghazal , generalghazal ,qasidah , epic, spiritual and mystical allegorical poetry, etc. But, as we know, none of the world renown Persian poets has succeeded in creating masterpieces in all these literary forms. Hafiz is famous for mysticalghazal , Sa`di for anecdotes and generalghazal , Firdawsi for epic, Rumi for his allegorical and spiritual poetry, Khayyam for his philosophic pessimism and Nizami for something else. For this reason, it is not possible to compare them with one another or prefer one over the other. All that can be said is that each one of them is foremost in his own field. If occasionally one of these poetic geniuses left his special field to try another literary form, a visible decline in quality was readily perceptible. The same is true of Arab poets of the Islamic and pre-Islamic periods. There is an anecdote inNahjul-Balagha that once Ali (A.S)  was asked this question: A Who is the foremost among Arab poets? Ali (A.S)  replied: A To be sure, all poets did not tread one and the same path so that you may tell who is the leader and who is the follower. But if one were forced to choose one of them, I would say that the foremost among them was al-Malik al-Zilleel (the wantonly wandering king, nickname of >Imri’ul-Qays). [31]

In his commentary, Ibn Abul-Hadid cites withisnad (authentic sources/references/transmitters) an anecdote under the above-mentioned comment. Here is what he writes: A During the holy month of Ramadan, it was Ali’s custom to invite people to dinner. The guests were offered meat, but Ali (A.S)  himself abstained from eating the food which was prepared for the guests. After the dinner, Ali (A.S)  would address them and impart moral instruction to them. One night, as they sat for dinner, a discussion commenced about the poets of the past. After the dinner, Ali (A.S) , in the course of his discourse, said: >The faith is the criterion of your deeds;taqwa is your shield and protector; good manners are your adornment, and forbearance is the fortress of your honor. Then, turning to Abul->Aswad al-Du’ali, who was present there and then and who had moments ago taken part in the discussion about poets, said, >Let us see, who in your opinion is the most meritorious of poets?’

Abul->Aswad recited a verse of Abu Dawud al->Ayadi, remarking that in his opinion, Abu Dawud was the greatest poet. A You are mistaken; such is not the case, Ali (A.S)  told him, whereupon the guests, seeing Ali (A.S)  taking an interest in their discussion, pressed him to express his opinion as to whom he considered to be the best among poets. Ali (A.S)  said to them, A It is not right to give a judgment in this matter for, to be certain, the pursuits of the poets are not confined to a single field so that we may point out the forerunner among them. Yet, if one were forced to choose one of them, then it may be said that the best of them is one who composes not according to the period’s inclinations, nor out of fear and inhibition, [but he who gives free rein to his imagination and poetic inspiration]. Asked as to whom this description would fit, Ali (A.S)  replied, A Al-Malik al-Dilleel, Imri’ul-Qays.

It is said that when someone inquired about who the most eminent poet of theJahiliyyah (the pre-Islamic period) was, Yunus ibn Habib al-Dhabbi (d. 798 A.D.), the famous grammarian, answered as follows: A The greatest of poets is Imri’ul-Qays when he mounts his steed [i.e. when he composes epic poetry motivated by the feelings of courage and bravery and the passions roused on the battlefield], al-Nabighah al-Thubyani [the genius belonging to Banu Thubyan] when he flees in fear [i.e. when he expresses himself on the psychological effects of danger and fright], al-Zuhayr ibn Abu Sulma when he takes delight [in something], and al->A`sha [her name meaning "one who cannot see very well"; male version is :"a'sha"], when he is in a merry and joyful mood. Yunus meant to say that every one of these poets had a special talent in his own field, one in which his works are considered as masterpieces. Each of them was foremost in his own specialty beyond which his talent and genius did not extend.

`ALI’S VERSATILITY

One of the outstanding characteristics of Imam Ali’s sayings, which have come down to us in the form ofNahjul-Balagha, is that such sayings are not confined to any particular field alone. Ali (A.S) , in his own words, has not trodden one single path only but has covered diverse grounds which occasionally are quite antithetical.Nahjul-Balagha is a masterpiece but not of the kind which excels in one single field such as the epic, theghazal , the sermon, the eulogy, the satire or the love poetry. Rather, it covers multifarious fields as shall be elaborated on. In fact, works which are masterpieces in a particular field do, indeed, exist; nevertheless, their number is not great, and they are countable. The number of works which cover numerous subjects but are not masterpieces is quite large. But the characteristic that a work be simultaneously a masterpiece without restricting itself to any one particular subject is an exclusive merit ofNahjul-Balagha . With the exception of the Holy Qur’an, which is altogether a different subject to be dealt with independently, what masterpiece is comparable toNahjul-Balagha ’s versatility?

Speech is the spirit's envoy, and the words of a man relate to the sphere in which his spirit dwells. Naturally, a speech which pertains to multiple spheres is characteristic of a spirit which is too creative to be confined to a single sphere. Since the spirit of Ali (A.S)  is not limited to a particular domain but encompasses various spheres and he, in the terminology of Islamic mystics, isal-Insan al-Kamil (a perfect man),al-kawn al-jami` (the complete microcosm) andjami’ kullal-hadarat [32] (the possessor of all higher virtues), so his speech is not limited to any one particular sphere. Accordingly, as we should say, in terms current nowadays, that Ali’s merit lies in the multi-dimensional nature of his speech, that it is different from one-dimensional works. The all-embracing nature of Ali’s spirit and his speech is not a recent discovery. It is a feature which has invoked a sense of wonder since at least one thousand years. It was this quality that had attracted the attention of Sayyid al-Radhi a thousand years ago, and he fell in love with Ali’s speeches and writings. He writes saying, A Of Ali’s wonderful qualities, which exclusively belong to him, none sharing them with him, is that when one reflects upon his discourses regarding abstinence (zuhd ), and his exhortations concerning spiritual awareness, for a while one totally forgets that the speaker of these words was a person of the highest social and political caliber, one who ruled over vast regions during his time, and his word was an order for all. Even for a moment, the thought does not enter the reader’s mind that the speaker of these words might have been inclined to anything except piety and seclusion, anything except devotion and worship, having selected a quiet corner of his house or a cave in some mountain valley where he heard no voice except his own and knew nobody except himself, being totally oblivious of the world and its hustle and bustle. It is unbelievable that those sublime discourses on asceticism, detachment and abstinence and those spiritual exhortations came from somebody who pierced the enemy’s ranks and went fighting to the very heart of their forces, with a sword in his hand, poised to sever the enemy heads, and who threw many a mighty warrior down from his steed, causing him to roll into blood and dust. Blood drips from the edge of his sword and yet he is the most pious of saints and the most devoted of sages.

Sayyid al-Radhi adds saying, A Frequently, I discuss this matter with friends, and it equally invokes their sense of wonder.

Sheikh Muhammed `Abdo, too, was profoundly moved by this aspect ofNahjul-Balagha , and it made him marvel at its swiftly changing scenes which take the reader on a journey through different worlds. He makes a note of it in the Introduction to his commentary ofNahjul-Balagha .

Aside from his speech, in general, Ali (A.S)  had a spirit that was universal, all-embracing, and multi-dimensional, and he has always been eulogized for this quality. He is a just ruler, a devotee who remains awake all night long worshipping Allah; he weeps in the niche of prayer (mihrab ) and smiles on the battlefield. He is a tough warrior and a soft-hearted and kind guardian. He is a philosopher of profound insight and an able general. He is a teacher, a preacher, a judge, a jurist, a peasant and a writer. He is a perfect man whose great soul envelops all spheres of the human spirit.

Safi al-Din al-Hilli (1277-1349 A.D.) says the following about him:

Opposites have come together in thy attributes,

And for that thou has no rivals.

A devout, a ruler, a man of forbearance, and a courageous one,

A lethal warrior, an ascetic, a pauper yet generous to others,

Traits which never gathered in one man and the like of which none ever possessed;

A gentleness and charm to abash the morning breeze,

A valor and might to melt sturdy rocks;

Poetry cannot describe the glory of thy soul,

Your multi-faceted personality is above the comprehension of all critics.

Apart from what has been said, an interesting point is that in spite of the fact that Ali’s discourses are about spiritual and moral issues, in them his literary charm and eloquence have attained their peak. Ali (A.S)  has not dealt with popular poetic themes such as love, wine and vainglory, which are fertile subjects for literary expression in prose and poetry. Moreover, he did not aim at displaying his skills in the art of oratory. Speech for him was a means and not an end in itself. Neither did he intend to create an object of art nor did he wish to be known as an author of a literary masterpiece. Above all, his words have a universality which transcends the limits of time and place. His addressee is the human being within every person; accordingly, his message does not know any frontier although, generally, time and place impose limits on the outlook of a speaker and confine his personality.

The main aspect of the miraculous nature of the Qur’an is that its subjects and themes are altogether at variance with those current during the time of its revelation. It marks the beginning of a new era in literature and deals with another world and a different sphere. The beauty and charm of its style and its literary excellence are truly miraculous. In these aspects, too, as is the case with its other features,Nahjul-Balagha comes closer to the Qur’an. In truth, it is the offspring of the Holy Qur’an.

Themes ofNahjul-Balagha

The variety of topics and themes discussed inNahjul-Balagha unfolds a wide spectrum of problems that give colour and hue to these heavenly discourses. The author of this dissertation has no pretension to possess the ability to do the book full justice and analyze it in depth. I just intend to give a brief account of the variety of its themes, and it is my firm belief that others will come in the future who shall be able to do justice to this masterpiece of human power of speech.

A Glance at the Varied Problems Covered byNahjul-Balagha

The various topics covered inNahjul-Balagha , everyone of which is worthy of discussion, may be outlined as follows:

Theological and metaphysical issues;

Mystic path and worship;

Government and social justice;

Ahl al-Bayt (–) and the issue of caliphate;

Wisdom and admonition;

The world and worldliness;

Heroism and bravery

Prophecies, predictions, and eschatology;

Prayers and invocations;

Critiques of the contemporary society;

Social philosophy;

Islam and the Qur’an;

Morality and self-discipline;

Personalities... and a host of other topics.

Obviously, as the titles of the various chapters of the present book indicate, the writer of this Introduction does not make any claim that the topics cited above are all that can be found inNahjul-Balagha . Neither does he claim that he has done an exhaustive study of these topics, nor has he any pretension to being considered competent for undertaking such a task. That which is offered in these chapters is no more than a glimpse. Perhaps, in the future, with Divine assistance, after deriving a greater benefit from this inexhaustible treasure, the writer may be able to undertake a more comprehensive study. Or perhaps others may be blessed with the opportunity to accomplish such an undertaking. Allah is wise and, indeed, His assistance and help is the best.

SECTION TWO

THEOLOGY AND METAPHYSICS OF THE NAHJ AL-BALAGHAH

One of the basic issues dealt with inNahjul-Balagha relates to theological and metaphysical problems. All in all, there are about forty places where the sermons, letters, and aphorisms discuss these issues. Some of these pertain to the aphorisms, but more often the discussion is longer, covering sometimes several pages.

The passages onTawhid (Divine Unity) inNahjul-Balagha can perhaps be considered to be the most wonderful discussions of the book. Without any exaggeration, when we take into account the conditions in which they were delivered, they can almost be said to be miraculous.

The discussions of this theme inNahjul-Balagha are of a varied nature. Some of them constitute studies of the scheme of creation bearing witness to Divine creativity and wisdom. Here, Ali (A.S)  speaks about the whole system of the heavens and the earth, or occasionally discusses the wonderful features of some specific creature like the bat, the peacock or the ant, and the role of the Divine design and purpose in their creation. To give an example of this kind of discussion, we may quote a passage regarding the ant:

Have you observed the tiny creatures that He has created? How He has made them strong and perfected their constitution and shaped their organs of hearing and sight, and how He has styled their bones and skin? Observe the ant with its tiny body and delicate form. It is so small that its features can hardly be discerned by the eye and so insignificant that it does not enter our thoughts. See how it roams about upon the ground and arduously collects its livelihood. It carries the grain to its hole and deposits it in its store. It collects during the summer for the winter and, when winter arrives, it foresees the time to reemerge. Its livelihood is guaranteed and designed according to its built. The Benefactor and the Provider does not forget or forsake it. He does not deprive it, even though it should be in hard and dry stones and rocks. You will be amazed at the delicate intricacy of its wonderful constitution if you investigate the structure of its alimentary canals, its belly, and its eyes and ears which are in its head. (Sermon 185)

However, most of the discussions aboutTawhid inNahjul-Balagha are rational and philosophical. The rare sublimity ofNahjul-Balagha becomes manifest in these discourses. In these philosophical and rational discourses ofNahjul-Balagha onTawhid, what constitutes the focus of all arguments is the infinite, absolute and self-sufficing nature of the Divine Essence. In these passages, Ali (A.S)  attains the heights of eloquence, and none, neither before him nor after him, has come close to him in this aspect.

Another issue dealt with is that of the absolute simplicity (al-basatat al-mutlaqa ) of the Divine Essence and negation of every kind of multiplicity, divisibility in the Godhead and refutation of separability of the Divine Attributes from the Divine Essence. This theme occurs repeatedly inNahjul-Balagha .

Also discussed is a series of other profound problems which had never been touched before him. They are: Allah being the First while also being the Last; His being simultaneously the Manifest and the Hidden; His precedence over time and number, i.e. His pre-eternity is not temporal and His Unity is not numerical; His Supremacy, Authority, and Self-sufficiency; His Creativeness; that attendance to one affair does not prevent Him from attending to other affairs; the identity of Divine Word and Act, the limited capacity of human reason to comprehend His reality, that gnosis (ma’rifa ) is a kind of manifestation (tajalli ) of Him upon the intellects, which is different from mental conception or cognition, the negation of such categories and qualities such as corporeality, motion, rest, change, place, time, similitude, antithesis, partnership, possession of organs or parts, limitation and number, and a series of other issues which we shall, by the will of Allah, mention later and give examples of every one of them. Even a thinker who is well-versed in the beliefs and views of ancient and modern philosophers would be struck with wonder upon seeing the wide range and scope of the problems propounded in this wonderful book.

An elaborate discussion of the issues raised and dealt with inNahjul-Balagha would itself require a voluminous book and cannot be covered in one or two articles. Unavoidably, we shall be brief; but before we commence our brief survey, we are compelled to mention certain points as an introduction to our discussion.

BITTER REALITY

We, Shi`a Muslims, must admit that we have been unjust with regard to our duty to the man whom we, more than others, take pride in following or, at the very least, we must admit falling short in our duty towards him. In substance, any kind of failure in fulfillling our responsibility is an act of injustice on our own part. We did not want to realize the significance of Ali (A.S) , or we had been unable to do so. All our energy and labor have been devoted to proclaiming the Prophet’s statements about Ali (A.S)  and to denouncing those who ignored them, but we failed to pay attention to the intellectual side of Imam Ali’s personality.

Sa`di, the poet, says the following:

The reality of musk in its scent lies,

Not in the perfumer’s advice.

Applying Sa`di’s words to our attitude regarding Imam Ali’s personality, we did not realize that this musk, recommended by the Divine Perfumer, itself carried its own pleasant aroma and, before everything else, we should have tried to know its scent and become familiar with it. That is, we should have familiarized ourselves and others with its inner fragrance. The counsel of the Divine Perfumer was meant to acquaint the people with its pleasant redolence, not for the purpose that they may believe that it is musk and then devote all their energies to convince others by arguing with them, without bothering to acquaint themselves with its real fragrance.

HadNahjul-Balagha belonged to some other people, would they have treated it the way we treated this great book? The country of Iran is the center of Shi`ism and the language of its people is Persian. You have only to examine the translations and commentaries onNahjul-Balagha to make a judgment about what our accomplishments amounts to.

To take a more general case, the Shi`i sources ofhadith (tradition) and the texts ofdu`a ’ (supplications) are incomparable with the texts of non-Shi`i works in the same field. This is also true of Divine teachings and other subjects. The problems and issues discussed in works like al-Kulayni’sAl-Kafi , or Sheikh al-Saduq’sAl-Tawhid , oral-Ihtijaj of al-Tibrisi are nowhere to be found among the works of non-Shi`is. It can be said that if occasionally similar issues are dealt with in non-Shi`i books, the material is unmistakably spurious, for it is not only opposed to the prophetic teachings but also contradictS the Qur’anic principles. There is a strong smell of anthropomorphism which hangs around them. Recently, Hashim Ma’ruf al-Hasani, in his bookDirasat fi Al-Kafi lil-Kulayni wal-Sahih li Bukhari , which is an original but a brief comparative study of theSahih ofal-Bukhari and of al-Kulayni’sAl-Kafi , has dealt with the traditions related to the problems of theology.

Shi`i Rationalism

The discussion of theological problems and their analysis by the Shi`i Imams, of whichNahjul-Balagha is the earliest example, was the main cause of the emergence of rationalistic approach and philosophic outlook in the Shi`i intellectual world since Islam’s earliest days. This cannot be labelled as an innovation (bid`a ) in Islam; rather, its basis was laid down by the Qur’an itself. It was in accordance with the approach of the Qur’an and for the purpose of its interpretation that the Imams ofAhl al-Bayt (–) expounded such issues. If anybody can be reproached in this matter, it is those who did not adopt this method and abandoned the means to follow it.

History shows that from the earliest Islamic era, the Shi`a, more than any other sect, were interested in these problems. Among Ahl al-Sunna, the Mu`tazilites, who were nearer to the Shi`a, did possess similar inclinations. But, as we know, the general view predominant among Ahl al-Sunna did not welcome it and, as a result, the Mu`tazilite sect became extinct about the end of the 3rd . Hijri/9th A.D. century.

Ahmed Amin, the Egyptian writer, confirms this view in the first volume of hisZuhur al-Islam . Having discussed the philosophic movement in Egypt during the reign of the Fatimids, who were followers of a Shi`a sect, he writes the following: A Philosophy is more akin to Shi`ism than it is to Sunni Islam, and we witness the truth of this in the era of the Fatimid rule [in Egypt] and in that of the Buwayhids [in Iran]. Even during the later centuries Persia, a Shi`ite country, has paid more attention to philosophy than any other Islamic country. In our own times, Sayyid Jamal al-Din al-Asadabadi, who had Shi`ite inclinations and had studied philosophy in Iran, created a philosophic movement in Egypt when he arrived here.

Curiously, Ahmed Amin, in his explanation of why the Shi`a showed more inclination towards philosophy, commits an error, willfully or otherwise. According to him, A The reason for greater inclination on the part of the Shi`a towards rational and philosophical discussions is to be found in their esotericism and their flair forta’wil . [1] They were compelled to seek the assistance of philosophy for defence of their esotericism. That is why the Fatimid Egypt and Buwayhid Iran, and Iran during the Safawid and Qajar periods, were more disposed towards philosophy than the rest of the Islamic world.

This is sheer nonsense on the part of Ahmed Amin. It was the Imams of the Shi`a School of Yought who, for the first time, introduced the philosophical approach, and it was they who introduced the most profound and intricate concepts with regard to theological problems in their arguments, polemics, sermons,ahadith and prayers, of whichNahjul-Balagha is one example. Even with regard to the prophetic traditions, the Shi`a sources are far more sublime and profound than the traditions contained in the non-Shi`i sources. This characteristic is not confined to philosophy alone but is also true ofkalam ,fiqh , andusul al-fiqh , in which the Shi`a enjoy a position of distinction. All this owes its origin to one and the same source: emphasis on rationalism.

Some others have tried to trace the origin of this difference [between the Shi`i and the Sunni mindsets] in the concept of A the Shi`ite nation. According to them, since the Persians are Shi`ite and the Shi`a are Persian and, since the Persians are a people with a philosophical temperament, fond of the intricacies of speculation and pure thought, with the help of their rich and strong philosophical tradition, they succeeded in raising the level of Shi`a thought, giving it an Islamic hue.

Bertrand Russell, inA History of Western Philosophy , expresses a similar view based on the above-mentioned argument. With his habitual or inherent impoliteness, he puts forth this opinion. However, Russell lacks the capacity of vindicating his claim, since he was totally unfamiliar with Islamic philosophy and basically knew nothing about it. He was not qualified to express any informed opinion about the origins of the Shi`a thought and its sources.

Our rejoinder to the upholders of this view is: First of all, not all Shi`as were/are Persian, nor all Persians were Shi`a. Were not Muhammed ibn Ya`qub al-Kulayni, Muhammed ibn Ali ibn al-Husain ibn Babawayh al- Qummi and Muhammed ibn Abu Talib al-Mazandarani Persian?! Were not Muhammed ibn Isma`il al-Bukhari, Abu Dawud al-Sijistani and Muslim ibn Hajjaj al-Nishaburi Persian, too?! Was not Sayyid al-Radhi, the compiler ofNahjul-Balagha , of a Persian origin?! Were not the Fatimids of Egypt of Persian descent?

Why was philosophical thought revived in Egypt with the inception of the Fatimid rule, and why did it decline with their fall? And why was it revived later, after a long interval, only through the influence of an Iranian Shi`a?

The truth is that the Imams ofAhl al-Bayt (–) were the only real dynamic force behind this trend of thinking and this kind of approach. All scholars of Ahl al-Sunna admit that among the Prophet’s Companions only Ali (A.S)  was a man of philosophic wisdom, the man who had an altogether distinct rational approach. Abu Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna) is quoted as having thus remarked: A Ali’s position among the companions of Muhammed (P.B.U.H. and His Holy Household), was that of the >rational’ in the midst of the >corporeal’.

Obviously, the intellectual approach of the followers of an Imam such as Ali (A.S)  should be expected to be radically different from that of those who followed others. Moreover, Ahmed Amin and others have been susceptible to another similar misunderstanding. They express doubts with regard to the authenticity of ascription of such philosophic statements [as exist inNahjul-Balagha ] to Ali (A.S) They say that the Arabs were not familiar with such issues, arguments and elaborate analyses like the ones found inNahjul-Balagha prior to becoming acquainted with the Greek philosophy, and evidently, according to them, these discourses should have been composed by some later scholars familiar with the Greek philosophy then were attributed to Imam Ali ibn Abu Talib (A.S).

We also accept that the Arabs were not familiar with such ideas and notions. Not only the Arabs, the non-Arabs, too, were not acquainted with them, nor were those notions familiar to the Greeks and Greek philosophy. Ahmed Amin first brings down Ali (A.S)  to the level of such Arabs like Abu Jahl and Abu Sufyan, then he postulates his minor and major premises, building his conclusion on their premises: A The Arabs were unfamiliar with philosophical notions; Ali (A.S)  was an Arab: therefore Ali (A.S)  was also unfamiliar with such philosophical notions. One should ask him whether the Arabs of the Jahiliyya were familiar with the ideas and the concepts propounded in the Holy Qur’an. Had not Ali (A.S)  been brought up and trained by the Messenger of Allah himself? Did not the Prophet (P.B.U.H. and His Household)  introduce Ali (A.S)  to his companions as the most learned and knowledgeable among them? Why should we deny the high spiritual status of someone who enriched his inner self by drawing on the bounteous wealth of Islam in order to protect the prestige of some of the Prophet’s companions who could never rise above the ordinary level?

Ahmed Amin says that prior to being acquainted with the Greek philosophy, the people of Arabia were not familiar with the ideas and concepts found inNahjul-Balagha . The answer to this is that the Arabs did not become acquainted with the ideas and notions propounded inNahjul-Balagha even after centuries of familiarity with the Greek philosophy. Not only the Arabs, even the non-Arab Muslims, were not acquainted with these ideas for the simple reason that there is no trace of them whatsoever in the Greek philosophy itself! These ideas are exclusively specific to the Islamic philosophy. Muslim philosophers gradually picked these ideas up from the basic Islamic sources, incorporating them in their thought under the guidance of revelation.

Philosophical Notions Concerning Metaphysics

As stated above,Nahjul-Balagha adopts two kinds of approach to the problems of theology. The first kind of approach calls attention to the sensible world and its phenomena as a mirror reflecting the Knowledge and Perfection of the Creator. The second approach involves purely rationalistic and philosophical reflections. The latter approach accounts for the greater part of the theological discussions ofNahjul-Balagha . Moreover, it is the only approach adopted with regard to the discussion of the Divine Essence and Attributes.

As we know, the value of such discussions and the legitimacy of such reflections have always been questioned by those who consider them improper from the viewpoint of reason or canon, or both. In our own times, a certain group claims that this kind of analysis and inference does not agree with the spirit of Islam and that the Muslims were initiated into such kind of speculations under the influence of the Greek philosophy and not as a result of any inspiration or guidance effused from the Qur’an. They say that had the Muslims adhered closely to the Qur’anic teachings, they would not have entangled themselves with these tortuous webs. For the same reason, they view with suspicion the authenticity of such speculations found inNahjul-Balagha and their attribution to Imam Ali (A.S) .

During the second and third centuries, a group of people opposed such kind of discussions, questioning their legitimacy and raising doctrinal objections thereto. They insisted that it is obligatory on Muslims to be satisfied with the literal and commonly understood meaning of the words of the Qur’an. They regarded every kind of inquiry into the meaning of the Qur’an as an innovation (bid’ah ) in religion. For instance, if someone inquired about the meaning of the Qur’anic verse AThe all-Compassionate seated Himself upon the Throne (Qur’an, 20:5), he was confronted by the displeasure of those who regarded such questions as not only improper but distasteful. He would be told: A The exact meaning is unknown and questioning is heresy. [2]

During the 3rd . A.H./9th. A.D. century, this group, which later came to be called Ash`arite, overwhelmed the Mu`tazilites who considered such speculations to be within the bounds of legitimacy. This victory of the Asharites delivered a severe blow to the intellectual life of Islam. The Akhbaris, who followed a Shi`i school which flourished during the period between the 10th . A.H./16th. A.D. and the 14th . A.H./20th. A.D. centuries, particularly during the 10th . A.H./16th. A.D. and 11th . A.H./17th. A.D. centuries, followed the Asha`ris in their ideologies and convictions. They raised doctrinal objections against ratiocination. Now we shall proceed to discuss the objections raised from a rationalist point of view.

As a result of the triumph of the empirical and experimental method over the deductive approach in Europe, especially in the physical sciences, the view began to prevail that rational speculation was unreliable not only in the physical sciences but also in all scientific disciplines and that the only reliable method was that of empirical philosophy. The result was that the problems of theology were viewed with doubt and suspicion because they lay beyond the domain of experimental and empirical observation.

The past victories of the Ash`arites, on one hand, and the amazing triumphs of the empirical method, which followed one another in quick succession, on the other hand, drove some non-Shi`ite Muslim writers to the extremes of excitement. The outcome was the eclectic opinion that from the religious (Shar`i ) as well as the rational point of view, the use of the deductive method even in problems of theology should be discarded. From theShar`i viewpoint, they made the claim that according to the outlook of the Qur’an, the only valid theological approach was the empirical and experimental method and the study of the natural phenomena and the system of creation; the rest, they declared, is no more than an exercise in futility. They pointed out that in scores of its verses, the Qur’an in most unequivocal terms has invited mankind to study the phenomena of nature; it considers the keys to the secrets of the origin and the workings of the universe to be concealed within nature itself. In this way, they echoed, in their writings and speeches, the ideas expressed by the European proponents of empirical philosophy.

In Farid al-Wajdi’s book >Ala atlal al-madhhab al-maddi (On the Ruins of Materialism), and in Sayyid Abul-Hasan al-Nadawi’sMatha khasira al-`alam bi-inhitat al-Muslimin ( A What the World Lost Through the Decline of Muslims), as well as the writers belonging to the Muslim Brotherhood (al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun ) such as Sayyid Qutb and others, have all supported this view, vehemently attacking the opposite viewpoint.

Al-Nadawi, in his above-mentioned book, says the following: A The prophets informed men about the existence of Allah and His Attributes and acquainted them with the origin and the beginning of life on the planet as well as the ultimate destiny of man, putting this free information at their disposal. They relieved mankind of the need to understand and discuss these problems the basics of which lie beyond our reach (because these problems belong to the sphere of the supra-sensible, and our knowledge and experience is limited to the physical and the sensible, the tangible). But men did not value this blessing; therefore, they entangled themselves in debates and speculations about these problems, striding into the dark regions of the hidden and the unknowable. [3]

The same author, in another chapter of the same book, where he discusses the causes of the decline of Muslims, under the heading AThe Neglect of Useful Sciences, criticizes the Muslim`ulema’ in these words: A The Muslim scholars and thinkers did not give as much importance to practical and experimental sciences as they gave to debating about metaphysics, which they had learned from the Greek philosophy. The Greek metaphysics and theology is nothing more than the Greeks’ polytheistic mythology presented in a philosophical outfit and is no more than a series of meaningless conjectures expressed in an absurd jargon. Allah has exempted the Muslims from such a debate, speculation and analysis regarding these matters which are not much different from the analytic pursuits of the Alchemists. But out of ingratitude for this great blessing, the Muslims wasted their energy and genius in problems of this sort. [4]

Without any doubt, the views of the likes of Farid al-Wajdi and of al-Nadawi should be regarded as a sort of return to Ash`arism, though dressed in contemporary style akin to the language of empirical philosophy.

Here, we cannot enter into a philosophical discussion about the value of philosophic reflection. In the chapters titled AThe Value of Information and AThe Origin of Multiplicity in Perception in the book titledThe Principles and Method of Realism , we have discussed the matter in sufficient details. Here, we shall confine ourselves to the Qur’anic aspect of this problem and investigate whether the Holy Qur’an considers the study of nature to be the only valid method of inquiry into theological problems, or whether it allows for another approach besides the one mentioned above.

However, it is essential to point out that the disagreement between the Ash`arites and the non-Ash`arites is not about the legitimacy of the use of the Book and the Sunna as sources in the problems of theology; rather, the disagreement concerns the manner of their utilization. According to the Ash`arites, their application should not exceed mute acceptance. According to them, we assign the various Attributes like Unity, Omniscience, Omnipotence and the rest to Allah because they have been ascribed to Him by theShari`a (Islamic legislative code) ; otherwise, we would not know whether or not Allah is as such because the basic principles and essentials dealing with Allah are beyond our reach. Therefore, according to them, we are forced to accept Allah as such, but we cannot know or understand that Allah is as such. The role of the religious texts is that they prescribe for us the way we ought to think and believe so that we may follow it in our ideology and convictions.

According to the contestants of this view, these issues, as is the case with any other rational concept or idea, are amenable to human understanding, that is, there exist certain principles and essentials which, if properly known, enable man to understand them. The role of the religious texts lies in their capacity to inspire, motivate, and guide the human intellect by putting understandable principles and essentials at its disposal. Basically, servitude in intellectual matters is absurd. It is like ordering one to think in a certain fashion, and asking him to derive certain prescribed conclusions. It is like ordering someone to see a thing in a certain fashion then asking him the following: A How do you see it? Is it big or small? Is it black or white?! Servitude in thinking does not mean anything other than absence of thinking and acceptance without reflection.

In short, the question is not whether it is possible for man to go beyond the teachings of the Revelation. Allah be our refuge, there is nothing that lies beyond them because that which has reached us through Revelation and through the Household of Revelation (i.e.Ahl al-Bayt [–]) is the utmost limit of perfection concerning the knowledge of the Divine. Here, our debate centers upon the capacity of the human thought and reason, whether or not it can, when supplied with the basic principles and essentials, undertake an intellectual journey through the world of theological problems [5].

As to the invitation of the Qur’an to study and inquire about the phenomena of creation and its emphasis on nature as a means for attaining the knowledge of Allah and the super-natural, it should be said that it is, indubitably, a basic principle of the Qur’anic teachings. It is with extraordinary insistence that the Holy Qur’an asks the human beings to inquire into the nature of the earth, the sky, the plants and animals, and man himself, urging them to study them scientifically. It is also indubitable that the Muslims did not take enough worthy strides in this direction. Perhaps the real reason behind it was the Greek philosophy, which was deductive and based on pure speculation. They used this approach even in the field of the physical sciences. Nevertheless, as the history of science bears testimony, the Muslim scientists did not altogether abandon the experimental method in their studies as did the Greeks. The Muslims, not the Europeans, as is commonly thought, were the pioneers of the experimental method. The Europeans followed on the tracks first laid by the Muslims.

The Value of Studying the Natural Phenomena

Aside from all of this, the question worthy of consideration is whether the Qur’an, besides its emphasis on the study of the creating of earth, water and air, allows other ways of approaching the issue, or if it closes all other doors. The question is whether the Qur’an, even as it invites people to study the signs of Allah (ayat ), also welcomes other modes of intellectual endeavor. Basically, what is the value of inquiry into the works of creation (an inquiry which the Qur’an urges us, explicitly or implicitly, to undertake), from the viewpoint of initiating us into the awareness and consciousness which this heavenly Book aims to cultivate?

The truth is that the measure of assistance provided by the study of the works of the creation in understanding the problems explicitly pointed out by the Holy Qur’an is quite restricted. The Holy Qur’an has propounded certain problems of theology which are by no means understandable through the study of the created world or nature. The value of study of the system of creation is limited only to the extent to which it proves that the world is governed by a Power which knows, designs, plans, and administers it. The world is a mirror, open to empirical experiment, only to the extent that it points towards something that lies beyond nature and discloses the existence of a Mighty Hand which runs nature’s cosmic wheels.

But the Holy Qur’an is not content that man should only know that a Mighty, Knowing, and Wise Power administers this universe. This may perhaps be true of other heavenly scriptures, but is by no means true of the Holy Qur’an, which is the final and ultimate heavenly message and has a great deal to say about Allah and the reality transcending nature.

Purely Rationalistic Problems

The most basic problem to which the mere study of the world of creation fails to provide an answer is the necessity of existence and uncreated nature of the Power which transcends natural phenomena. The world is a mirror in the sense that it indicates the existence of a Mighty Hand and a Wise Power, but it does not tell us anything more about Its nature. It does not tell us whether that Power is subservient to something else or not, or if it is self-subsisting. And if it is subject to something else, what is that? The objective of the Holy Qur’an is not only that we should know that a Mighty Hand administers the world, but that we may know that that Administrator is A Allah and that A Allah is the indefinable: A There is nothing like Him, the One whose Essence encompasses all perfection or, in other words, that A Allah signifies Absolute Perfection and is the referent of A His is the loftiest likeness. How can the study of nature give us an understanding of such notions and concepts?

The second problem is that of the Unity of Allah (Tawhid ). The Holy Qur’an has stated this issue in a logical form and used a syllogistic argument to explain it. The method of argument which it has employed in this regard is called A exclusive syllogism or A reductio ad impossible (burhan al-tamannu` ). Occasionally, it eliminates the possibility of multiplicity in the efficient cause as in the following verse: [6]A If there had been (multiple) gods in them (i.e. in the earth and the heavens) other than Allah, they would surely go to ruin (21:22).

At other times, it argues by eliminating the possibility of multiplicity in the final cause: AAllah has not taken to Himself any son, nor is there any god besides Him, for then each god would have taken off that he created and some of them would have risen up over others (23:91).

The Holy Qur’an never suggests that the study of the system of creation can lead us to the knowledge of the Unity of the Godhead so as to imply that the essential knowledge of the transcendental Creator be considered attainable from that source. Moreover, such a suggestion would not have been correct.

The Holy Qur’an alludes to various problems as indicated by the following examples:

Nothing is like Him (42:11).

And Allah`s is the loftiest likeness. (16:60)

To Him belong the most Beautiful Names. (20:8)

And His is the loftiest likeness in the heavens and the earth. (30:27)

He is Allah, there is no god but He. He is the King, the All-holy, the All-peaceable, the All-faithful, the All-preserver, the Almighty, the All-compeller, the All-sublime. (59:23)

And to Allah belong the East and the West; whither so ever you turn, there is the Face of Allah. (2:115)

And He is Allah in the heavens and the earth; He knows your secrets, and what you publish. (6:3)

He is the First and the Last, the Outward and the Inward; He has knowledge of everything. (57:3)

He is the Living, the Everlasting. (2:255)

Allah, is the Everlasting, [Who] has not begotten, and has not been begotten and equal to Him is not any one. (112:2-4)

Why does the Holy Qur’an raise such issues? Is it for the sake of propounding mysterious matters incomprehensible to man who, according to al-Nadawi, lacks the knowledge of its essential principles, and then asking him to accept them without comprehending their meaning? Or does the Holy Qur’an actually want him to know Allah through the attributes and descriptions that have come in it? And, if this is true, what reliable approach does it recommend? How is it possible to acquire this knowledge through the study of the natural phenomena? The study of the creation teaches us that Allah has knowledge of all things; that is, all things that He has made were created knowingly and wisely. But the Holy Qur’an expects us not only to know this but also stresses that:

Indeed Allah has the knowledge of everything. (2:231)

And not so much as the weight of an atom in earth or heaven escapes from thy Master, neither is aught smaller than that, or greater, but in a Manifest Book . (10:61)

Say: A If the sea were ink for the Words of my Master, the sea would be spent before the Words of my Master are spent, though We brought replenishment the like of it. A (18:109)

This means that Allah`s knowledge is infinite and so is His power. How and wherefore is it possible through perception and observation of the world of creation to reach the conclusion that the Creator`s Knowledge and Power are infinite? The Holy Qur’an, similarly, propounds numerous other problems of the kind. For instance, it mentionsal-lawh al-mahfuz (the Protected Tablet),lawh al-mahw wa al- > ithbat (The Tablet of Expunction and Affirmation),jabr andikhtiyar (determinism and free will),wahi (revelation) andilham (intuition), etc.; none of which are susceptible to inquiry through the empirical study of the world of creation.

It must be admitted that the Holy Qur’an, definitely, has raised these problems in the form of a series of lessons and has emphasized their importance through advice and exhortation. The following verses of the Holy Qur’an may be quoted in this regard:

What?! Do they not meditate on the Qur’an? Or is it that there are locks upon their hearts? (47:24)

(This is) a Scripture that We have revealed unto thee, full of blessing, that they may ponder on its revelations, and that men of understanding may reflect. (38:29)

Inevitably, we are forced to accept that the Holy Qur’an assumes the existence of a reliable method for understanding the meaning of these facts which have not been revealed as a series of obscure incomprehensible things out of the reach of the human intellect.

The scope of problems propounded by the Holy Qur’an in the sphere of metaphysics is far greater than what can be resolved or answered through the study of physical creation. This is the reason why the Muslims have pursued these problems, at times through spiritual and gnostic efforts, and at other times through speculative and rational approach.

I wonder whether those who claim that the Holy Qur’an considers the study of nature as the sole, sufficient means for the solution of metaphysical problems, can give a satisfactory answer with regard to the various problems propounded by it, a characteristic which is specifically relevant to this great heavenly Book.

Ali’s sole source of inspiration in his exposition of the problems mentioned in the previous chapters is the Holy Qur’an, and the sole motive behind his discourses is exegetical. Perhaps, had it not been for Ali (A.S) , the rationalistic and speculative aspects of the Holy Qur’an would have forever remained without an interpretation.

After these brief introductory remarks on the value of these issues, we shall go on to cite some relevant examples fromNahjul-Balagha .

The Divine Essence and Attributes

In this section, we shall cite some examples ofNahjul-Balagha ’s treatment of the problems of theology relevant to the Divine Essence and Attributes. Later, we shall make a brief comparative study of the issue in various schools then conclude our discussion on this aspect ofNahjul-Balagha .

However, before proceeding further, I solicit the reader`s pardon on account of the discussion in the last three sections becoming a bit technical and philosophical, something which is not very welcome for those who are not used to it. But what is the remedy? Discussing a book such asNahjul-Balagha does entail such ups and downs. For this reason, we shall limit ourselves to giving only a few examples from the book on this subject and refrain from any elaborate discussion. This is so because if we were to comment on every sentence inNahjul-Balagha , the result will be, as is said,

My Mathnawi requires seventy mounds of paper.

THE DIVINE ESSENCE

DoesNahjul-Balagha have anything to say about the Divine Essence and how to define it? The answer is: Yes, and a lot. However, much of the discussion revolves around the point that the Divine Essence is the Absolute and Infinite Being, without a quiddity. His Essence accepts neither limits nor boundaries, as is the case with other beings, static or changeable, which are limited and finite. A changeable being is one which constantly transcends its former limits and assumes new ones. But such is not the Divine Essence. Quiddity, which may qualify and confine Him within limits of finitude, is not applicable to Him. None of the aspects of beings are devoid of His Presence, and no kind of imperfection is applicable to Him except the absence of any imperfection whatsoever: The only thing A missing in Him is absence of defect or inadequacy of any kind. The sole kind of negation applicable to Him is the negation of all negations. The only kind of non-being attributable to Him is the negation of any kind of imperfection in relation to Him. He is free from all shades of non-being which characterize creatures and effects. He is free from finitude, multiplicity, divisibility and need. The only territory that He does not enter is that of nothingness and non-existence. He iswith everything, but notin anything, and nothing is with Him. He is not within things, though not out of them. He is over and above every kind of condition, state, similarity and likeness. This is so because these qualities relate to limited, and they determinate beings characterized by quiddity:

A He is with everything but not in the sense of [physical] nearness. He is different from everything but not in the sense of separation. (Sermon 1 )

A He is not inside things in the sense of physical [pervasion or] penetration and is not outside them in the sense of [physical] exclusion [for exclusion entails a kind of finitude]. (Sermon 186)

A He is distinct from things because He overpowers them, and the things are distinct from Him because of their subjection to Him. (Sermon 152)

That is to say, His distinctness from things lies in the fact that He has authority and control over them, all of them. However, His power, authority and sovereignty, unlike those of the creatures, are not accompanied with simultaneous weakness, subjugation and subjection. His distinction and separateness from things lie in the fact that things are totally subject to His power and authority, and that which is subject and subordinate can never be like the one who subjugates and commands control over it. His separateness from things does not lie in physical separation but is on account of the distinction which lies between the Provider and the provided, the Perfect and the imperfect, the Powerful and the weak.

These kinds of ideas are replete in Ali`s discourses. All the problems which shall be discussed later are based on the principle that the Divine Essence is Absolute and Infinite, and the concepts of limit, form and condition do not apply to it.

DIVINE UNITY: ONTOLOGICAL, NOT A NUMERICAL CONCEPT

Another feature ofTawhid (monotheism) as propounded byNahjul-Balagha is that the Divine Unity is not numerical but is something else. Numerical unity means the oneness of something which has the possibility of recurrence or multiplicity. It is always possible to imagine that the quiddity and form of an existent is realizable in another individual being. In such cases, the unity of an individual possessing that quiddity is numerical oneness and stands as the antithesis of duplicity or multiplicity.

A It is one means that there is unique, none, nobody, nothing is like it. Inevitably, this kind of unity entails the quality of being restricted in number, which is a defect because one is less in number as compared to two or more of its kind. But if a being is such that the assumption of a recurrence with regard to it is impossible, since it is infinite and unlimited, and if we assume another like it exists, it will follow that it is the same as the first being, or that it is something which is not similar to it and, therefore, it cannot be called a second instance of it. In such a case, unity is not numerical. That is, this kind of unity is not one opposed to duplicity or multiplicity. And when it is said, A It is one, it does not mean that there are no two, three or more of its kind, but it means that a second to it is inconceivable.

This notion can further be clarified through an example. We know that the astronomers and physicists are not in agreement about the dimensions of the universe, whether it is limited in size or infinite. Some scientists have favored the idea of an unlimited and infinite universe; others claim that the universe is limited in dimensions so that if we travel in any direction, we shall reach a point beyond which there is no space. The other issue is whether the universe in which we live is the only universe in existence, or if there are other universes existing besides it.

Evidently, the assumption of another physical world beyond our own is a corollary to the assumption that our universe is not infinite. Only in this case is it possible to assume the existence of, say, two physical universes each of which is limited and has finite dimensions. But if we assume that our universe is infinite, it is not possible to entertain the assumption of another universe existing beyond it. Whatever we were to assume would be identical with this universe or a part of it.

The assumption of another being similar to the Being of the One GodCsuch as the assumption of another physical universe besides an infinite material universeCamounts to assuming the impossible, for the Being of Allah is absolute: Absolute Selfhood and Absolute Reality.

The notion that the Divine Unity is not a numerical concept, and that qualifying it by a number is synonymous with imposing limits on the Divine Essence, is repeatedly discussed byNahjul-Balagha :

A He is the One, but not in a numerical sense. (Sermon 152)

A He is not confined by limits, nor is He counted by numbers. (Sermon 186)

A He who points to Him admits for Him limitations; and he who admits limitations for Him has numbered Him. (Sermon 1)

A He who qualifies Him limits Him. He who limits Him numbers Him. He who numbers Him denies His pre-eternity. (Sermon 152)

A Everything associated with unity is deficient except Him. (Sermon 65)

How beautiful, profound, and full of meaning is the last statement! It says that everything except the Divine Essence is limited if it is one. That is, everything for which another of its same kind is conceivable is a limited being and an addition of another individual would increase its number. But this is not true of the Unity of the Divine Essence, for Allah`s Unity lies in His greatness and infinity for which a peer, a second, an equal or a match is not conceivable.

This concept, that the Divine Unity is not a numerical notion, is exclusively an Islamic concept, original and profound, unprecedented in any other school of thought. Even the Muslim philosophers only gradually realized its profundity through contemplating on the spirit of the original Islamic texts, in particular the discourses of Ali (A.S) , ultimately formally incorporating it in the Islamic metaphysical philosophy. There is no trace of this profound concept in the writings of the early Islamic philosophers like al-Farabi and Ibn Sina (Avicenna). Only the later philosophers ushered this concept into their philosophic thinking calling it AReally True Unity, in their terminology.

Allah, The First and the Last; the Manifest and the Hidden

One of many issues discussed inNahjul-Balagha is that Allah is the First and the Last, the Hidden and the Manifest. Of course, like other notions, this, too, has been deduced from the Holy Qur’an, although here we are not going to quote the verses of the Holy Qur’an. Allah is the First, but His precedence is not temporal so as to be in contradiction with His being the Last. He is the Manifest, but not in the sense of being physically visible or perceptible by the senses; His Manifestness does not contradict His Hiddenness. In fact, His being the First is identical to His being the Last; similarly, His being Manifest and Hidden are identical; they are not two different things:

Praise to Allah, for whom one condition does not precede another, so that He may he the First before being the Last or may be Manifest before being Hidden. (Sermon 65)

Time is not His accomplice, nor does He need the assistance of tools and agents His Being transcends time. His Existence transcends nothingness and His pre-eternity transcends all beginning. (Sermon 186)

The Divine Essence`s transcendence over time, nothingness, beginning, and end is one of the most profound concepts ofal-hikma philosophy. Allah`s pre-eternity does not mean that Allah has always existed. Certainly Allah has always existed but The Divine pre-eternity (azaliyyah ) is something greater in meaning than >existence at all times`; because, >existing at all times` assumes existence in time; but Allah`s Being has not only been at all times, It precedes time itself. This is the meaning of The Divine pre-eternity. This shows that His precedence is something other than temporal precedence. Praise to Allah Whose creation bears testimony to His Existence; temporality (huduth ) of whose creation is the evidence of His preternity the similarity and likeness among whose creation proves that He is unique. The senses do not perceive Him and nothing can conceal Him. (Sermon 152)

That is to say, Allah is both Hidden and Manifest. By Himself, He is Manifest but is Hidden from, undetectable by, the human senses. His Hiddenness from the senses is due to man`s own limitations, not because of Him.

It needs no proof that existence is synonymous with manifestation; the more powerful the existence of a being, the more manifest it will be. Conversely, the weaker its being is and the more intermingled with non-being, the less manifest it is to itself and to others.

For everything, there are two modes of being: its being-in-itself (wujud fi nafsih ), and its being-for-others(wujud fi ghayrih ). The being of everything for us depends upon the structure of our senses and on certain special conditions. Accordingly, the manifestation of a thing, a being, is also of two kinds: its manifestation-in-itself (zuhur fi nafsih ) and its manifestation-for-others(wujud fi ghayrih ).

Our senses, on account of their limitations, are able to perceive only a limited number of finite objects possessing the characteristics of similarity and opposition. The senses can perceive colours, shapes, sounds, etc., which are limited temporally and specifically; that is, their existence is confined within a particular time and place. Now, if there existed a uniform light, always and everywhere, it would not be perceptible. A continuous monotonous sound heard always, constantly, and everywhere, it would not be audible.

The Being of Allah, the Absolute Being and the Absolute Reality, is not confined to any particular time or place and is hidden from our senses. But Allah in Himself is absolutely manifest; the perfection of His manifestness, which follows from the perfection of His Being, is itself the cause of His hiddenness from our senses. The two aspects of His manifestness and hiddenness are one and the same in His Essence. He is hidden because He is perfectly manifest, and this perfect manifestness conceals Him:

You art hidden on account of Your perfect brilliance; You Art the Manifest, the Hidden in Your manifestness.The veil on Your face is also Your; so manifest You art, Your manifestness conceals Thee from the world’s eyes.

AN APPRAISAL

An appraisal, however brief, of the approach ofNahjul-Balagha and its comparison with that of other schools of thought is essential for discovering the true worth of its views on the problems of theology. We shall confine ourselves to the brief, though not quite sufficient, examples quoted in the foregoing pages and proceed to evaluate them.

The subject of the Divine Essence and Attributes is one which has been discussed a lot by the ancient and modern philosophers, mystics and Sufis of the East and of the West. But, in general, their method and approach is totally different from that ofNahjul-Balagha whose approach is highly original and unprecedented. Only in the Holy Qur’an can a precedent forNahjul-Balagha be found. Apart from the Holy Qur’an, we do not find any other source that provides some ground for the discourses ofNahjul-Balagha .

As pointed out earlier, some scholars, because of their failure to trace back to some earlier source the notions elaborated inNahjul-Balagha have questioned the authenticity of ascription of these discourses to Ali (A.S) They have suggested that these discourses appeared in a later period, after the appearance of the Mu`tazilites and the assimilation of the Greek ideology, heedless of the following saying: A The mean earth with the sublime heaven does not compare!

How ignorant it is to compare the Mu`tazilite and the Greek ideologies with the teachings ofNahjul-Balagha !