Logical Foundations of Induction

Alhassanain (p) Network for Islamic Heritage and Thought

Logical Foundations of Induction

(Al-usus al-mantiqiyyah li'l-istiqra ')

MuhammadBaqir As-Sadr

Translated by M.F.Zidan

www.alhassanain.org/english

Table of Contents

Preface to Online Version 6

Introduction 7

The logical foundations of Induction 7

Induction 9

Part 1: Induction and Epistemology 9

Chapter 1: Aristotelian Induction 9

Meanings of Induction 9

Aristotle's perfect induction 9

Criticism of perfect induction 10

Recapitulation 11

Aristotle's imperfect induction 11

The Problem of induction 11

Formal logic and the problem 12

Misunderstanding of formal logic 13

Aristotelian epistemology and induction 13

Formal logic and chance 14

Need of definite formulation 15

The crucial point of difference 15

Chapter 2: Criticism of Aristotelian Induction 17

Indefinite Knowledge 17

Genesis of indefinite Knowledge 17

Aristotelian principle and indefinite knowledge 18

First Objection 18

Second objection 19

Third Objection 19

Fourth Objection 20

Fifth Objection 21

Sixth Objection 21

Seventh Objection 22

Chapter 3: Induction And Empiricism 23

Certainty Attitude 23

On the First and Third Questions 23

Discussion 24

On the second question 24

Answer to that question 24

Probability Attitude 26

Discussions 27

Psychological Attitude 28

Examination of psychological attitude 30

(1) Belief 30

(2) Causality and Reason 31

(3) Causality and Experience 32

(4) Concept of Causality 32

(5) Belief in causality 33

Physiological Explanation of Induction 35

Part 2: Induction And Probability 36

Chapter 1: Calculus of Probability 36

Introduction 36

Axioms of the theory 36

Rules of the Calculus 37

Bernoulli's law of large numbers 38

Chapter 2: The Interpretation of Probability 40

(A) Fundamental Definition 40

The First problem 40

The Second Problem 41

(B) Probability in the Finite Frequency Theory 42

Real and Hypothetical Probabilities 42

New Definition of Probability 44

A. The axioms of the new definition 45

Difficulties of our definition 46

The new definition and the calculus 47

The new definition and inverse probability 47

The definition and the Bags - example 47

Our definition and Bernoulli's law 47

The first example 48

The second example 48

Completeness of our definition 48

New axioms 49

Ground of Dominance Axiom 50

Categorical and Hypothetical indefinite knowledge 50

Conditional knowledge that is real 51

Recapitulation 52

Chapter 3: The Deductive Phase Of Induction 53

Causality 53

First Application 54

Rule of multiplication 54

Application of Dominance Axiom 55

Dominance and the problem of a priori probability 56

Second Application 56

The absence of effect does not occur in both cases 56

Third Application 57

Multiplication or dominance 58

Hypothetical Knowledge And Empirical Causality 58

Fourth Application 59

Chapter 4: Modern Theories of Probability 61

Difficulties of Laplace's theory 62

Keynes and Induction 64

Difficulties of Keynes' Interpretation 65

Causal Relations 66

Logical Justification 66

Philosophical justification 67

Scientific Justification 67

Tactical Justification 67

Another Form of Deductive Phase 68

Requirements of the deductive phase 69

Induction and formal logic 69

Chapter 5: Induction and Certainty 71

Subjective Role in Certainty 71

Kinds of certainty 71

Objective certainty require[s] an axiom 72

The formulation of the postulate 73

Conditions of the Postulate 74

The first form of the postulate 74

Objections and Answers 77

1. Is causality a term in indefinite Knowledge 77

2. Attempt to deny our knowledge of causality 77

3. Misapplication of inductive postulate 78

4. Indefinite Probability 79

The Second Form of the Postulate 80

Reformulation of Aristotle's principle 82

Discussion 84

Objection and Answer 85

Part 3: Human Knowledge And Probability 87

Chapter 1: Classes of Statements 87

Principles of demonstration 87

Principles of other forms of inference 87

Universal empirical statements 89

Intuitive statements 90

Testimonial statements 90

Testimonial statements and a priori probability 92

Solution of the Problem 93

Belief in rational agent 95

Inductive proof of God's existence 95

(3) or by virtue of an unwise maker having non-purposive actions 96

Basic Empirical Statements 99

Inductive ways concerning the first formulation 100

Inductive ways concerning the second formulation 101

Our knowledge of the external world is inductive 103

Belief in the conditions of perception is inductive 103

Resemblance between percepts and realities 104

Beliefs in resemblances of particulars 105

Recapitulation 106

Primitive and innate statements 106

Exceptions 107

Differences between primitive and inductive statements 107

Induction and mathematical statements 108

Chapter 2: Is There A priori Knowledge? 110

Empirical Statements 110

Formal Statements 110

Logical Positivism 112

Criticism 113

Empiricism and Meaning of Statements 114

Reichenbach's Position 116

Russell's Objection 116

Discussion 116

CONCLUSION 118

Notes 119

Preface to Online Version

The basic thesis of this book is that the same logic of induction on which scientific methodology is based can be used to prove the existence of God. The implication of this work is far reaching, for it attempts to layout a unifying, common basis of research in religion, social sciences, and natural sciences.“Our Philosophy” and“The Revealer,The Messenger, and the Message” , the two other books by the same author, are very relevant in this regard and useful for a wider understanding of author's thesis. It is suggested that those readers who wish to read this book in search of only a theistic argument on the existence of God may first want to check the second of the abovementioned books; because that book is written specifically with that purpose in mind. The author himself says in one of the chapters of that book that he has avoided“difficult and complicated constructions and analyses not readily accessible to the average reader” in that book.

As for the present book, as the introduction by the translator testifies, this book is a valuable contribution to philosophy and methodology of science, the probability theory, and theistic argument in support of the existence of God. Given the complexity of argument in this book, the translator’s efforts are commendable. Still, at places, one finds the translation to be lacking. At other times, there are typos. We have tried to correct them (in red marks) in the text as much as possible. (The words in plain red are typos we were certain about, hence we corrected them. The words in brackets are mistakes we were not very sure about. At places we have added some ideas from other works by the same author to make it more accessible. The brackets with [x__] means that text inside was what was there when we scanned the book, but we were not sure about it, so we suggest alternative outside the bracket and quote the original in the [x__] for reader's reference.) We hope that you will find this book useful for your academic pursuit.

Introduction

The logical foundations of Induction

Reading through the history of human thought, it is found that inference which man employs in his intellectual and practical life is mainly divided into deduction and induction. Each of which is distinct in nature and procedure.

In deduction, the conclusion never surpasses the premises; the conclusion is either less than or equal to what is asserted in the premises. Thus, the conclusion is necessarily true if its premises are true; the conclusion, in deduction, follows from its premises by virtue of the principle of non-contradiction.

But, in induction, the conclusion has more in it than what is presented in the premises. The conclusion is not inferred deductively. The procedure in induction is contrary to that made in syllogism.The latter moves from general to particular while the former moves from particular to general. Such move from particular to general cannot have the principle of non-contradiction as its basis, as we can assume the premises to be true and the conclusion false without falling into contradiction. Hence, the principle of non-contradiction does not justify inductive conclusions but leads to a gap when proceeding from particular to general.

In this book, we try to present a reformulation of the theory of knowledge in a scientific, philosophical and objective manner based on the theory of probability so as to fill the gap in the intellectual march of man.

Professor As-Sadr tries in the first chapters of the book to present a critical exposition of rationalism represented in Aristotelian logic based on induction. The Aristotelian logic proves inefficient in filling the gap. Professor As-Sadr moves on to a thorough exposition of the empirical theory with its different trends and its method in bridging the gap. Further, he points out the inefficiency of such logic, being unable to present a substantial explanation that can embrace the inductive proof.

The rest of the book tackles the grounds and principles of the theory of probability with a reformulation of it. Professor As-Sadr successfully presents the theory as a basis for inductive proof. Finally, the eminent Muslim jurist tries to display the domains of human knowledge based on deduction and tries to interpret such knowledge in the same manner as that based on induction. Hence, he crowned his great efforts, sound thinking and broadmindedness in proving through clear evidence that the logical grounds of all scientific inference derived from observation and experiment are the same logical grounds proving the Maker of this universe; a universe abounding in signs of wisdom and sagacity, his inference is inductive by nature and in its implementation of the general way required for the inductive proof in its two phases.

With this logical proof, man faces two confusing alternatives: either to reject the scientific inference as a whole or to accept it and give the inductive inference proving the Maker the same weight as the scientific one.

Through such an objective, scientific method, Professor As-Sadr proves that science and faith are interrelated in their logical and inductive grounds. Hence, we can never separate between both of them in light of the logical standpoint of induction.

Hence, the eminent professor sets the logical rules or empirical proof on the existence of God after expounding the logical correlation between scientific inference and the inductive method to reveal the signs of wisdom and sagacity, hence, the existence of the Maker, We can say that the Muslim thinker, Mohammed As-Sadr , in his book“The logical Foundations of Induction” , opens a new horizon breaking the barriers between the modern scientific method and the postulates of the cultural history to the Muslim thinkers, Professor As-Sadr probed deep into the world of research, mastering his tools, armed with natural science. The professor refuted the pretext with another; the proof with another, enjoying a profound understanding of the western thinking.

“The logical Foundations of Induction” has, thus, crowned all the professor's efforts in the field of intellectual creativity. Professor As-Sadr is considered one of the few thinkers who probed deep into this sophisticated scientific and philosophical domain tackling one of the most serious problems in the philosophy of science and the contemporary scientific method.

Regrettably, the author, though an eminent thinker with authentic, creative concepts and with an invaluable method covering scientific, cultural and religious values, has never enjoyed the glamour he deserves.This book, though one of the author's greatest studies, has never enjoyed due attention whether through translation to other languages or research and studies conducted on such a prolific author's creative work.

Finally, trying to introduce the book of such a great jurist and eminent thinker as Professor As-Sadr , may God bless him, is no easy task. It is an onerous task as the Professor enjoyed broadmindedness and was highly acquainted, with scientific, juristic and ideological knowledge. I hesitated a lot due to the prominent stand of Professor As-Sadr and the grandeur of this book, scientifically and philosophically. I only accepted thishonourable task after the insistence of the publisher and those concerned in this sphere. I accepted such a great responsibility which is considered anhonour . I ask Almighty God to help mefulfil such a task and to be up to the responsibility.

Dr.Ghafer Abbass Hagi

Professor of Islamic Economics

Kuwait University

Chapter: 2 Trends Towards Verses And Hadiths Of Divine Attributes

Since first century four or more schools were originated due to the Sunnis' engagement in admissibility in hadiths of Allah's optical seeableness. These ideological schools were come forth a long time before emergence of their jurisprudential schools. Up to now these ideological trends prevailed masters and followers of these jurisprudential schools.

The first trend is school of interpretation. This school is almostly the nearest to Ahlul-Beit's sect. Its basic sentiment is regarding the decisive Verses of Allah's oneness such as (Nothing like a likeness of Him;) and (Visions comprehend him not.) as the base of promoting Allah the Exalted against unfitting affairs. It also tends to represent any text signaling at Allah's corporeality or optical seeableness in a way harmonizing intellectual judgments and other Quranic and prophetic texts. It seems that followers of this school are forming the majority among the former as we ass the recent Sunni scholars. Philosophers and Mutazilites enter under this class. It is the trend adopted by Ahlul-Beit; the Prophet's household (peace be upon them).

The second trend is school of commendation. Followers of this school abstain from construing Quranic and prophetic texts respecting the divine attributes. They commend their meanings to God. This trend is followed by most of the former narrators and few of the recent.

The third trend is school of extrinsic meanings. Followers of this school suspend the extrinsic meanings of the divine texts. They believe that Allah the Exalted has material hand face leg and rim. Christians and Jews adopt this trend. Ka'bulAhbar Wahab Bin Munebbih and their associates took the task of publicizing this trend among Muslims. It became the formal trend adopted by 12. Ahlul-Beit stands for the Prophet's progeny, and their sect is Shism.

the ruling regimes in the Umayid reign. Hanbalites as well as part of the Asharists adopted that trend. Ibn Teimiya and Wahabists attempted at attaching this trend to the worthy ancestors and Sunnis.

The fourth trend is school of commuters vacillators and the perplexed. Models of such three categories have been rendered in our Al-Aqa'idulIslamiya Volume One.

The name 'Metawila' interpreters commonly used in Syria Palestine and Egypt at describing the Shias was seemingly originated from the corporalists who ruled of the Shias' atheism. They also ruled of atheism of Muslims apart from their sects whose course was finding suitable representation for the Quranic and prophetic texts.

Although majority of Sunnis our brothers are 'interpreters' the name of 'Metawila' with all of its ill meanings and effects was stuck to the Shias the wronged. The description 'Mitwali' gave an idea in mentalities of the Shias' rivals worse than that of 'kafir'- disbeliever.

The following is a rather detailed submission of these trends.

SCHOOL OF INTERPRETATION

Followers of school of interpretation who form majority of scholars allege that it is normal that every idiom should be interpreted in the most suitable way. An utterance is exposed pursuant to its real meaning unless there is a pronunciational or intellectual obstacle against appropriating. Only then metaphorical meaning is adapted according to principals of discourse experienced by specialists.

The Arabic is highly remarkable in rhetoric and eloquence due to various expressive styles of metaphor metonymy allegory simile …etc. Thus the Prophet's companions and their associates dealt with expressions of the Holy Quran and hadiths on this basis. They appreciated that texts appearances of which contrast Allah's divine exaltation were metaphoric listed under comparing the percipient to the materialistic so that Allah's attributes and deeds would be evidently conceived by ordinary mentalities. They decided the unintendedness of susceptible appearances of such divine texts. Hence metaphor should be referred to for interpreting. In God's saying (The hand of Allah is above their hands. 48:10) neither the organic hand nor is any akin thing had by Allah is intended. He the Exalted alludes that the other party of allegiance of fealty altogether with His propensity prevalence and elevation is higher than the previous. As a matter of fact this is very natural in any language. In our daily speech expressions of gratitude are said as an answer for those who address at you "You have done a heartbreaking job." Immediately it is understood that a heartbreaking job is a deed of an expressive value that it affected emotions. It does not mean that due to that job spears or bullets were sent to hearts that made them breakable. Hearts however cannot be broken materially.

EYAD THE JUDGE ASSERTS THE MUSLIMS' UNANIMITY ON INTERPRETATION

In his Sharhu Sahihi Muslim volume 3 part 5 page 24 AnNawawi records:

Eyad the judge states:

Including jurisprudents and hadithists Muslims unanimously rest upon that the skyey phenomena mentioned in the Holy Quran should not be taken for their preliminary meaning of their aspects. The entire Muslims found interpretation for such expressions.

AnNawawi in volume 5 part 9 page 117 of the same reference records the following:

Eyad the judge states:

Al-Marizi interprets 'Yadnu'- come close-mentioned in the Holy Quran as coming close of His mercy and dignity. It does not stand for the material closeness which is connected to distance and contiguity.

In Jami'ulAhadithilQudsiyyeti MinesSihah part 1 page 74 the following is recorded:

AnNawawi: This is one of the divine attributes texts. Two trends are regarded to the idea of this text. Trend of majority of theologists and a good number of the worthy ancestors is that the most fitting interpretation should be found for explicating such hadiths. Hence Malik Bin Anas interpreted the most suitable meaning. He stated "His mercy and affairs or angels are the things descended in stages."

On page 160 of part 1 of the same reference the following is written down:

The ever first matter to be believed is promoting Allah the Exalted against qualities of His creatures. Believing in a contrary matter is actually prejudicing faithfulness. Unanimously the entire master Muslims agreed upon the fact that it is imperative to believe in the unintendedness of the extrinsic meanings thrown by Quranic Verses respecting Allah's attributes and ascribing material attributes to Him the Exalted. It is inapplicable to accredit the apparent meanings of Quranic Verses to Allah the Exalted.

The following is recorded in part 1 page 167 of the same reference:

In his Sharhul-Ahadith Al-Mazini states:

This is among the matters obligatorily interpreted. It comprises God's having a hand. This may lead to the Lord's corporeality and limitedness.

In Siyeru A'laminNubela part 8 page 243 AtThehbi states:

AtTufi: Scholars and regardable individuals unanimously agreed on the metaphoricality of this expression and the metonymically statement of Allah's giving victory aid and support to His slave. He the Exalted corresponds His divine Entity to instrumentalities used by His slaves. "By through Me he perceives. By me he sees. By me he strikes. By me he walks." This is a piece of a hadith.

For Wahabists as it will be detailedly debated soon they rule that interpretation of the Holy Quran and hadiths is wholly deviation from God's right path and atheism. Correspondingly they must have ruled of the deviation and atheism of all of those who interpreted including Ibn Khuzeima their master in conception of Allah's corporeity. Bin Baz however advises of reviewing Ibn Khuzeima's books.

IBN KHUZEIMA INTERPRETS THE HADITH "GOD CREATED ADAM ON HIS LOOK."

Sunnis our brothers narrate:

As he heard a man revile at a friend by saying "Deformed be your look and its like." the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) addressed at him "Seek not deformation of his look. God had surely created Adam on his look."

Some of the Prophet's companions adhered to this saying claiming its concordance to the Jews' conception of Allah's creating Adam on His divine look. This means that mankind's look is as same as Allah's. We the Shias followed our imams (peace be upon them) who assert that the Prophet's intendment was "The look of the man you are deforming is as same as the look of Adam." Hence the pronoun in 'his look' refers to the addressee not God the Exalted.

A good number of Sunni scholars agreed with us in this question. Ibn Khuzeima the criticizer of Aisha and the so called 'the grand master' who embraces fanatically conception of Allah's optical seeableness was one of those scholars involved.

In His AtTawhid page 37 Ibn Khuzeima says:

Some of the unacquainted misthought that 'his look'- intended in the hadith involved refers to Allah. The Beneficent our Lord be more exalted than being intended. The pronoun 'his' in fact refers to the reproached man. The Prophet (peace be upon him) intended that that reproached's look was the same chosen by Allah to be Adam's. As the reviler was censured by the Prophet for imputing deformation to his acquaintance's face and those bearing the same this means he imputed deformation to Adam's face since his sons' faces are as same as his. God's mercy be upon you perceive this point in this form so that you should evade errors and misunderstanding otherwise you will be deviating the right path by adopting for conception of Allah's corporeity that is actual deviation.

An expression more ambiguous than that reported by Abu Hureira was mentioned in another report:

Yousuf Bin Musa: Jarir: Al-Amesh: Habib Bin Abi Thabit: Atta Bin Abi Rebah: Ibn Omar:

The Prophet (peace be upon him) said "Impute not deformation to faces. Sons of Adam were created on the look of the Beneficent."

AtThawri reported the same wanting uninterrupted documentation.

Abu Musa Mohammed Bin Al-Muthenna: Abdurrahman Bin Mahdi: Sufian: Habib Bin Abi Thabit: Atta:

The Prophet (peace be upon him) stated "Deformation should not be imputed to faces. Sons of Adam were created on the look of the Beneficent."

By this expression a famous scholar who should not surmise knowledge was perplexed. They misthought that attaching 'the look' to 'the Beneficent' is a sort of attaching attributes of entity. Yet this is a big mistake and an ugly statement comparable to that of the anthropomorphists. May God protect Muslims and us against their statements!

As much as I can perceive regarding interpreting this report providing authenticity of communication is proved there are three points of error. First AtThawri contrasted Al-Amesh in documentation. He relate without referring to Ibn Omar. Second Al-Amesh is fabricator. He could not receive the report directly from Habib Bin Abi Thabit. Third Habib is also fabricator. He could not receive the report directly from Atta. Assuming authenticity of documentation of the report it may hint at the idea that attaching 'the look' to 'the beneficent' is a sort of attaching creation to the Creator. Creatures are attached to the Beneficent since He was the Creator. Similarly looks are attached to the Beneficent the Creator. This is clear by God's sayings (This is Allah's creation but show Me what those besides Him have created. 31:11). Allah attaches creation to Him since He was the creator.

(This will be as Allah's shecamel for you a sign. 7:73). Allah attached the shecamel to Him. He added (Leave her to pasture on Allah's earth).

(They shall say: Was not Allah's earth spacious so that you should have migrated therein? 4:97)

(Surely the land is Allah's; He causes such of His servants to inherit it as he pleases. 7:128). Allah attached the land to Him since it was He the Creator.

(-Allah's nature- The nature made by Allah in which He has made men. 30:30). Allah attached that nature to Him as He made people in. God has not attached

to Him two attached items; one attachment of entity and the other is that of creation.

For evading errors you should understand these two meanings. Considering the authenticity of communicative documentation of the report sons of Adam were created according to the look created by the Beneficent when He first created and puffed spirit in Adam. Allah the Exalted says (And certainly We created you then We fashioned you. 7:11).

The following narrative is a good evidence on accuracy of the interpretation we have recently rendered:

Abu Musa Mohammed Bin Al-Muthenna: Abu Amir AdulMelik Bin Omar: Al-Mughira Bin Abdirrahman: AbuzZinad: Musa Bin Abi Othman: his father: Abu Hureira:

The Prophet (peace be upon him) stated "Allah created Adam on his look. His was sixty yard long…etc."

Owing to its concordance to logic and our sect we the Shias admit Ibn Khuzeima's interpretation involved. Wahabists however adopted for hadith of 'on the look of the Beneficent'. They alleged that Omar the caliph admitted the Jews' claim Allah's creating Adam on according to His divine look. So they opted for a (god) of a look of mankind!!

SAMPLES OF ANNAWAWI'S INTERPRETATION

In Sharhu Sahihi Muslim part 2 page 116 AnNawawi states:

"…he keeps on supplicating God till this causes God to laugh…" Scholars determine that God's laughter is an expression of His satisfaction with His slave's act His affability to him and attiring the slave with His grace.

In the same reference part 10 page 249 AnNawawi says:

(Release of Allah's hands) stands for His ability. Since people's acts are usually done by hands Allah opted for this organ for promoting the significance intended.

In the same reference volume 2 part 3 page 12 AnNawawi states:

"O Apostle of Allah! Have you seen your Lord?" asked Abu Dherr. "He is brilliance. How can I see brilliance?!" answered the Prophet. This implies that Allah's curtain is brilliance that cannot be seen. Eyad the judge asserts "It is impossible to regard Allah's entity as a brilliance that is a corporeality. Allah the Praised the Exalted is excellently elevated against being so.

In the same reference volume 4 part 7 page 6 AnNawawi says:

The Prophet (peace be upon him) stated "Our Lord descends to the lowest heavens every night." Two conceptions vex this saying. First majority of the

worthy ancestors and some of theologists claim that it is right as much as it conforms to Allah the Exalted. Aspect of the saying is unintended. Allah is promoted against having His creatures' qualities. Second this saying is metaphoric.

In the same reference volume 4 part 7 page 98 AnNawawi records:

"…the beneficent should take with the right hand…" Al-Maziri claims that such statements are subject to customary expressions. Taking with the right hand is an expressive phrase that stands for Allah's admissibility to the alms. Allah the Exalted is excellently promoted against being a corporeality.

In the same reference volume 6 part 12 page 212 AnNawawi writes down:

Eyad the judge declares:

Good conditions and sublime standing are the real meanings of being to the right of Allah.

Ibn Arafa:

Coming from the right side implies the very suitable side.

In the same reference part 8 page 16 AnNawawi states:

"The just shall be on rostra of brilliance to the right of Allah. Allah's both hands are right."

Ibn Arafa explicates: The second expression draws attentions to the fact that 'the right' intended is not that limb.

In the same reference part 8 page 44 AnNawawi records:

Al-Mawardi states: God's indignation mentioned in the Prophet's saying stands for rage. This is by reason that indignation is not ascribed to Allah the Exalted and Praised.

On page 132 part 17 volume 9 of the same reference AnNawawi records:

Regarding explaining Ibn Omar's narrative of Allah's corporeality Eyad the judge states: We do believe in Allah the Exalted and His divine attributes. We do not resemble Him to anything. The Prophet's clutching and opening his fingers is a representation of grabbing extending and gathering creatures. It is also a representation to the grabbed and the extended; that are heavens and earths. It does not indicate to attributes of grabbing and extending that are attributes of Allah the Grabber the Extender. 'Release of Allah's hands' stands for His ability. Since people's acts are usually done by hands Allah opted for this organ for promoting the significance intended.

On page 60 part 17 volume 9 of the same reference AnNawawi records:

The Prophet (peace be upon him) said "Allah is more blissful for His slaves' repentance." Scholars explained Allah's bliss by His satisfaction. For assuring significance of satisfaction in receivers' minds expression of bliss was used.

On page 182 part 17 volume 9 AnNawawi states:

The Prophet (peace be upon him) stated: "The hell shall not be saturated unless Allah the Blessed the Elevated lays His leg in."

This is one of the most famed hadiths of divine attributes. Scholars were of two variant opinions regarding its exegesis. First interpretation of these words should be neglected. The extrinsic meaning however is not intended since there is a suitable meaning involved. This opinion is adopted by majority of the worthy ancestors and a good number of theologists. Eyad the judge says:

The most apparent interpretation of this hadith is that they are people who deserved and were created for the hell. It is essential to pass over the surface of the text since it is decisively evidential that limbs are impracticably ascribed to Allah the Exalted.

On page 44 part 10 of the same reference AnNawawi states:

Regarding the Prophet's saying "Allah created Adam on his look." this is one of hadiths of divine attributes. Some scholars discard stating any interpretation claiming that they believe it but there should be a more suitable meaning since the surface is not intended. This opinion is adopted by most of the worthy ancestors. It is however the most cautious and appropriate. Another opinion states that such texts should be interpreted on bases of promoting Allah the Exalted against such descriptions.

On page 200 of Riyadhus-Salihin AnNawawi records:

On Resurrection Day believers shall be close to their Lord. This closeness expresses dignity and benevolence. It does have nothing to do with distances. Allah the Praised is promoted against distances.

WAHABISTS DISCARDED ANNAWAWI'S MASTERY

Wahabist committee of issuing verdicts part 3 page 136; Question 12 Verdict 4264:

Q. Some claim AnNawawi's resting upon Asharism in questions regarding the divine names and attributes. Is this true? What is your proof? Is it acceptable to provide such questions regarding scholars? Some claimed that in his book titled 'BustanulArifin' AnNawawi proves his being Sufi. To which extent is this claim true?

A. Regarding the divine attributes AnNawawi had a number of errors in which he rested upon course of the interpreters. Hence he is disregardable in this affair. It is obligatory to adhere to sayings of AhlusSunna(13) concerning confirming the divine names and attributes mentioned in the Holy Quran and the infallible authentic traditions of the Prophet. It is also obligatory to believe in such names and attributes in a way becoming to Allah the Exalted passing over distortion denudation modification or representation. Hence it is imperative to apply God's saying (Nothing is like a likeness of Him; and He is the Hearing the Seeing.) and the like.

The Permanent Committee of Scholastic Searches and Issuing Verdicts.

MODELS OF INTERPRETATION OF Al-QASTALANI

On page 235 part 4 of IrshadusSari Al-Qastalani records:

Rage of creatures is a feeling engaging minds. It is unbecoming to ascribe such a quality to the Creator the Exalted. Thus this should be interpreted in a way fitting Allah the Exalted.

On page 319 part 5 of the same reference Al-Qastalani writes down:

Abu Hureira: The Prophet (peace be upon him) stated "Allah created Adam on his look."

This indicates that Allah suspends him on the look He had created on. This interpretation however is contrasted by another hadith "Adam was created on the look of the Beneficent."

On page 36 part 7 of the same reference the following is written down:

The judge: Regarding the Prophet's saying that Allah laughs to two men Allah's laughter however is a metaphoric expression. Corporealities only may laugh. Allah is promoted against being a corporeality. Satisfaction is the significance of laughter mentioned in the hadith.

On page 187 part 9 of the same reference Al-Qastalani says:

The descending mentioned in the hadith implies descending of God's mercy affair or angels. Al-Beidawi comments: It is proved by positive evidences that Allah is highly promoted against being a corporeality or occupying a definite space; therefore it is impracticable to credit transferable descending to Him.

On page 348 part 9 of the same reference it is recorded:

13. AhlusSunna stands for people of the Prophet's traditions. They are the Sunnis.

The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: "Hell keeps on demanding with more till Lord of Dignity places His foot precedence in it." Some discussed that 'foot' in this regard refers to the most evil people God had prepared to be preceded to hell.

On page 250 part 10 he records:

Ire of Allah the Exalted stands for His desire to penalize.

On page 269 part 10 the following is written down:

God says (The hand of Allah is above their hands). God named the Prophet's hand as the hand of Allah since it advanced others'. Allah the Praised the Elevated is exaltedly promoted against having limbs and corporeal characteristics. Meaning of the Verse however is recognition that a covenant contracted with the Prophet (peace be upon him) is regarded as same as that contracted with Allah.

On page 388 part 10 Al-Qastalani states:

A man addressed at the Prophet (peace be upon him) that Allah holds the heavens with a single finger and the earth with another. The Prophet (peace be upon him) laughed to excess. These characteristics are impracticable to Allah the Exalted.

On page 391 part 10 the following is recorded:

God says (Then He settled on the Throne. 7:54). AhlusSunna state that Allah the Praised the Exalted describes Himself with 'on' which is one of attributes of Entity. Mutazilites state that the preposition stands for prevalence by means of power and pertinence. The corporalists claim that it indicates settlement.

On page 398 part 10 of the same reference Al-Qastalani records:

The Prophet (peace be upon him) stated "On Resurrection Day you tranquilly and peacefully shall see your Lord as clear as this moon." This means that you shall not wrong each other on that situation since the Lord shall be seen from every side. Allah is exceedingly promoted against being having a definite space. Simile here is for the view not the viewed.

God says (Looking at [waiting for] their Lord). Ways conditions and distances are nonexistent during looking at the Lord.

On page 402 part 10:

"…he keeps on supplicating till this causes God to laugh…". The matter intended is accomplice of laughter; satisfaction.

On page 420 part 10 Al-Qastalani records:

God says (Then He settled on the Throne). It is wrong to explain 'the Throne' as a bench and 'settled' as an act of stability. This explanation is adopted by anthropomorphists. Allah the Exalted was being before the Throne when there was no space. Now He is as same as he was being. Moveableness is a characteristic of cosmoses.

On page 435 part 10 the following is recorded:

Abu Hureira: The Prophet (peace be upon him) stated "Our Lord the Blessed the Elevated descends to the lowest heavens every night." This means that He orders an angel of descending. Ibn Hazm interpreted that this act is done by Allah in the lowest heavens for commencing responding supplications. Ibn Khuzeima adds "At daybreak He returns to the Throne."

Al-Qastalani tries to say that Ibn Khuzeima adopt for corporalism as he states that Allah Himself descends and returns.

MANY OTHERS CONSENTED INTERPRETATION

In his AtTasihil Fi UlumitTanzil part 3 page 283 Ibn Jazi records:

Doctrinally imputing characteristic of being up to Allah the Elevated is dedicated to the meaning fitting His divine region not the meaning that may illusively refer to limitation.

AsSuheili in his ArRawdulAnif part 3 page 24 records:

IbnulLebban: Laying hands to Allah is a form of metaphor. He the Exalted the Praised is greatly promoted against having a limb.

On page 24 part 3 of the same reference AsSuheili records:

Attaching shadow to Allah the Elevated the Praised is a form of honoring. He the Exalted is promoted against having a shadow which is one of specifications of corporealities. Shadow of His divine Throne is intended. This is clear in Selman's report.

On page 48 part 3 of the same reference the following is recorded:

Significance of the Lord's laughter is pleasing to excess.

ArRazi's Al-Mettalibul-Aliya volume 1 part 1 page 10:

Philosophers agreed upon proving the existence of beings that are neither occupying certain spaces nor falling in a locale. Intellects souls and prime matters are examples of such beings. Like Muammar Bin Ebbad the Mutazilite and Mohammed Bin AnNuman the Rafidite(14) a good number of grand masters of Muslims' scholars opted for this conception.

14. Rafidism is a name Sunnis addressed at Shias. It stands for mutiny.

Mohammed Bin AnNuman previously mentioned by ArRazi is Sheik Al-Mufid; one of the grand masters of Shias. Rivals of Shias accused him of opting for corporalism. ArRazi communicates Al-Mufid's opinion that there are beings selfsufficient from occupying spaces. Creator of these beings should be more willingly having this characteristic.

Ibn Hazm's Al-Fasl volume 2 part 2 page 167:

The Prophet (peace be upon him) stated "Hell keeps on demanding with more till Lord of Dignity places His foot precedence in it."

In this text 'foot' stands for precedence. This meaning is mentioned in God's saying (A footing of firmness with their Lord. 10:2). Hence meaning of the hadith is that Allah should fill in hell with people who preceded others in evildoing. The same is said about the authentic hadith "Allah created Adam on his look." This indicates that Allah had opted for the look according to which He created Adam.

MODELS OF RASHID RIDA'S UNRESPONSIVE INTERPRETATION

TafseerulMenar part 3 page 2201:

Some claimed impermissibility of resting upon other than the Quran and the uninterruptedly documented hadiths regarding the divine attributes. Single reports interpretation and narratives should not be admitted engaged and regarded in this question since these matters depend upon surmise.

This saying however is not that far away from fact except that it is disagreeing the worthy ancestors' apparent modes. These reports and narratives were admitted recorded and ruled of being authentic as the narrators were trustful. At any rate there are two answers to be provided for this question.

First followers of the Prophet's companions recognized by doctrinal proofs it is impermissible to accuse trustful individuals of fabrication especially in matters pertaining to the divine attributes. Refuting a report narrated by AsSiddiq Abu Bakr (God please him) for example and related directly to the Prophet (peace be upon him) is regarded as belying him and judging of his invention or inadvertence. On that account followers of the Prophet's companions admitted and communicated such a narratives accrediting them to Abu Bakr or Anas and directly to the Prophet (peace be upon him). From this cause it is provable by doctrinal evidences that paths to accusing the pious and the decent among the Prophet's companions of fabrication are totally blocked; how is it then obligatory to avoid accusing conjecture of reporters of single narratives? Similarly how is it obligatory to treat with surmise as same as the decent's reporting disregarding the fact that suspicion in some cases is a sin? The divine Legislator ordered of admitting communicating and publicizing reports of decent individuals. This does in no means suggest that personal surmise and conjecture should be admitted publicized and communicated. For

that reason we are to say that whatsoever is reported by other than the decent concerning question of the divine attributes should be shunned and neglected. Reports of admonition and examples should be scrutinized accurately.

Second these reports were communicated by the Prophet's companions only after they had certainly heard from the Prophet personally. Their followers likewise admitted and communicated so. During their communication the followers had been wont to refer to the Prophet's companions before they refer to the Prophet (peace be upon him). They were honest. As each hadith had a definite point they neglected no single one except those bearing expressions that may convey a meaning opposite to the intended. As an example the following hadith is cited.

The Prophet (peace be upon him) stated: "Our Lord descends to the lowest heavens every night …"

This hadith was communicated in this form for the purpose of urging on performing prayers and worshipping rites and practices. It has an enormous effect in driving towards night worship which is the most excellent. This great advantage would have been negative had this text been let pass. Such an advantage should not be negligible. For children and ordinary people the hadith may hint at Allah's practical descending. At any rate it is an easy duty for the educated to plant pictures of glorifying and promoting Allah against practical descending. A well-grounded may use the following style "Providing God's descending to the lowest heavens is for making us perceive His call this descending shall be useless since we could not perceive. The Lord however could have called at us from His Throne or the most elevated heavens."

This would make ordinary people understand nullity of practical descending. The following example can also be cited. It is futile for a man in the furthest west of the earth to advance just few steps for making a man in the east hear his call. This advancement should be reckoned with deeds of the insane. This amount however is so sufficient that ordinary people would understand the nullity of practical descending. It is also conceivable that corporealities are impracticable for Allah. This leads to the fact that impracticability of moveableness of other than corporealities is as same as impracticability of descending without moveableness.

This proves that advantage of communicating such reports is great while harm is scanty. This should by no means be equal to question of communicating personal surmise as truths.

Rashid Rida this well-educated exegesist was guided by his intellect to the very right! He could prove that the serious questions of beliefs should not be admitted by a single report series of its narrators is totally unrealizable. Avoiding this perplexity the well-educated exegesist submitted his mind to

deeds of the worthy ancestors who ruled of obligation of admitting reports of a single companion even if concerning beliefs or contrasting the Holy Quran! On that account they admitted hadiths of Allah's descending and seeableness although each was related by a single narrator. They issued the obligation of admitting relations of definite individuals claiming Allah's giving orders of admitting such narratives. Correspondingly the ruled of obligation of denying fabrication making mistakes and inadvertence of such individuals. Finally they proposed denial of any contradiction between any two narratives related by two of the Prophet's companions.

As if he had not been acquainted of confusion troubles and conflicts broken out between Muslims due to the variant conceptions respecting beliefs it is noticeable how that exegesist alleviated mischances probably encountered by Muslims and sometimes their scholars owing to hadiths of corporalism and anthropomorphism. Such hadiths were the direct reason beyond publicity of reports and legends of the Jews Christians and Magi regarding the Lord's corporeity appearance and descriptions. Some of such fables suppose that Allah the short roughhaired breadless and youth descends to the lowest heavens on the back of a donkey. The most pious and godly individuals went on searching for the Lord inspecting the descriptions given among boys. They also fabricated stories about their meeting shaking hands and associating with the Lord. This is only a minute part of the misfortunes of corporalism and anthropomorphism opposed firmly by the Prophet's household Aisha and other virtuous companions of the Prophet. They confronted flamers of spark of this disaster warned Muslims against its dangers and demanded them with refuting and belying such matters.

Viewing at his saying "It is an easy duty for the educated to plant pictures of glorifying and promoting Allah against practical descending." we perceive how that exegesist allayed removal of effects and reports of corporalism. Had his claim been true why then it would have been impossible for scholars and philosophers to persuade corporalists and anthropomorphists of the other opinion? As a matter of fact those people could plant such misplaced beliefs in ordinary people's mentalities. In alike fashion had the matter been so easily let a well-grounded scholar plant Allah's elevation and exaltation against corporalism in the hearts of Ibn Teimiya Mohammed Bin AbdilWahab Bin Baz and Al-Albani and enlighten them with nullity of the practical descending.

Finally how did this well-informed exegesist espy that when Allah the Exalted intended to drive Muslims towards performing prayers and night worshipping rites He used a funny style "Every night I descend to the lowest heavens; therefore I order you of worshipping at night." This style duped and made them bear an illusive belief about the Lord.

Reality of this matter is that Rashid Rida and his likes intend only to defend personality of Omar the caliph since he was the originator of Allah's corporeity and descending. What should we do then if it is not serviceable to defend such an unreasoning idea the caliph had taken in from Ka'bulAhbar's culture?

SCHOOL OF COMMENDATION AND FORBIDDING INTERPRETATION

As we have previously mentioned the Prophet's companions and their associates referred to rules of the Arabic during dealing with expressions of the Quranic and prophetic texts. Whenever there is an intellectual or expressional presumption metaphorical significances were preferred. They also referred to the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) who spared no efforts in explicating intendments of Verses and hadiths. A curious view at their numerous usual inquiries addressed at the Prophet and his most knowledgeable companions concerning purports of Quranic and prophetic texts it is noticeable that some questions were customary inquisition to certain conceptions and judgments. Some in fact were purposed for defining a definite meaning personally intended. Others were the cause of decline and ignorance of their mental levels and rhetoric.

Before he departed them for good the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) had nominated the reference they should rest upon. "I am leaving with you the two weighty things; Book of Allah and my progeny; my household."

Unfortunately they did not refer to these two things after the Prophet. Consequently various ideological problems were originated in the midst of Muslims. This was because of variety of references commenting on Quranic and prophetic texts. By the same token surmise conjecture exegeses and sayings of different companions of the Prophet or their followers were contrasted. Soon after contradictory hadiths all ascribed to the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) emerged. In due course a group opted for trend of interpretation. Some scholars of the other sect issued verdicts of obligation of keeping silence in the face of exegeses so that they would keep their principal religion and evade committing a mistake in such a serious question. "Read them find not any exegesis and commend your affair regarding these questions to Allah the Exalted." This was the advice commonly provided for followers of this trend; trend of commendation.

This is the exact meaning of commendation and abstinence from interpretation. This school became a formal trend for majority of Muslims in time of publicity of contradictory exegeses and supporting hadiths. The foremost text respecting trend of commendation and forbiddingness of interpretation I could

distinguish was that recorded by As-Suyouti who relates it to Malik and Sufian Bin Uyeina in AdDurrulManthour part 3 page 91:

Al-Beihaqi recorded: Abdullah Bin Wahab:

We were attending at Malik when a man entered and asked about the way of the Beneficent's settling on the Throne. For a considerable time Malik nodded the head down and shivered. Finally he raised his head and addressed at the man "(The Beneficent settled on the Throne) is as exactly as He had described. It is impracticable to ask 'how' about Him. This word is canceled for Him. In addition you are a heretic man!" Malik ordered of throwing that man out.

Al-Beihaqi recorded: Ahmed Bin AbilHawari: Sufian Bin Uyeina stated:

The exegesis of whatsoever is accounted as Allah's describing His Entity with is only reciting and acquiescing in it.

Al-Beihaqi recorded: Isaaq Bin Musa: Sufian Bin Uyeina stated:

The exegesis of whatsoever is accounted as Allah's describing His Entity with is only reciting. Saving Allah the Exalted and His Apostles (peace be upon them) none is admitted to interpret such matters.

AtThehbi's Siyeru A'laminNubela part 8 page 466:

Mohammed Bin Isaaq AsSagani Luwein:

As he was asked about hadiths regarding Allah's seeableness Sufian Bin Uyeina answered "They are right as long as we could perceive from our trustful and honest ones."

Ahmed Bin Ibrahim AdDawraqi: Ahmed Bin Nasr:

Importunately I insisted on Sufian Bin Uyeina seeking answers for my questions about the exegeses of the hadiths "Allah bears the heavens on a single finger." "Hearts of people are fixed between two of the Beneficent's fingers." and "Allah laughs if He is mentioned in marts."

"These hadiths are as they were conveyed. We recognize without commenting." Sufian answered.

AtThehbi's Siyeru A'laminNubela part 10 page 505:

Abu Mohammed Bin Alwan: Abdurrahman Bin Ibrahim: AbdulMughith Bin Zuheir: Ahmed Bin Ubeidullah: Mohammed Bin Ali Al-Ashari: Abul-Hassan AdDarqutni: Mohammed Bin Mukhalled: Al-Abbas AdDawri:

Having mentioned hadiths of Allah's optical seeableness the Chair place of the two feet laughter and previous space of the Lord Abu Ubeid Al-Qasim Bin Selam commented "These are authentic hadiths conveyed by hadithists and

jurisprudents one another. For us these are doubtless. If an interpretation of the way of our Lord's laughter and place of feet is required we should answer that we neither have an exegesis nor did we hear anyone interpret."

INDICATIONS OF THE COMMENDERS' TEXTS

Many substances are shown from texts rested upon by the commenders. The following are the most remarkable:

First school of commendation came after that of interpretation.

Second generation of the Prophet's companions were totally dependent on the Prophet's presence among them. They were either questioning him or not. The same thing occurred to the caliphs and their words or imams of the Prophet's household (peace be upon them) and their words.

Third majority of followers of the Prophet's companions depended upon interpretation or commendation. The third and fourth generations were almostly commenders that this was taken as the formal trend of hadithists facing Shias and Mutazilites who were interpreters.

Fourth commendation was nearly dedicated to the divine attributes and reports such as Allah's settling on the Throne laughter and ire. Attributes of operations were approximately interpreted.

Fifth it is unnecessary for commenders to leave interpretation at all. Commendation and interpretation could be opted according to the question involved.

As we have previously referred to on page 187 part 9 of IrshadusSari Malik the master says:

The descending mentioned in the text implies descending of God's mercy affair or angels.

On page 91 part 3 of AdDurrulManthour Malik's relying upon commendation in question of Allah's settling on the Throne is recorded. Question of Allah's settling on the Throne was largely distorted and adopted by the corporalists as an evidence.

Commendation and interpretation followed one of two matters. First recognizing the narrator who is usually one of the Prophet's companions who communicate the significance of the text involved. Second existence of an authentic hadith that is irrefutable and untranslatable on bases of reasoning.